T  •• ,' 


i 


PRACTICAL    GRAMMAR 
AND    COMPOSITION 


PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR 
AND  COMPOSITION 


BY 

THOMAS   WOOD,  A.M.,  LKB. 

THE  BBADDOCK   (PENNSYLVANIA)   HIGH  SCHOOL 


D.    APPLETON    AND    COMPANY 
NEW    YORK  CHICAGO 


COPYRIGHT,  1910,  1914,  BT 
D.  APPLETON  AND  COMPANY 


PEEFACE 


THIS  book  was  begun  as  a  result  of  the  author's  experience 
in  teaching  some  classes  in  English  in  the  night  preparatory 
department  of  the  Carnegie  Technical  Schools  of  Pittsburg. 
The  pupils  in  those  classes  were  all  adults,  and  needed  only 
such  a  course  as  would  enable  them  to  express  themselves  in 
clear  and  correct  English.  English  Grammar,  with  them,  was 
not  to  be  preliminary  to  the  grammar  of  another  language, 
and  composition  was  not  to  be  studied  beyond  the  everyday 
needs  of  the  practical  man. 

Great  difficulty  was  experienced  because  of  inability  to 
secure  a  text  that  was  suited  to  the  needs  of  the  class.  A  book 
was  needed  that  would  be  simple,  direct  and  dignified;  that 
would  cover  grammar,  and  the  essential  principles  of  sentence 
structure,  choice  cf  words,  and  general  composition;  that 
would  deal  particularly  with  the  sources  of  frequent  error,  and 
would  omit  the  non-essential  points;  and,  finally  that  would 
contain  an  abundance  of  exercises  and  practical  work. 

It  is  with  these  ends  in  view  that  this  book  has  been  pre- 
pared. The  parts  devoted  to  grammar  have  followed  a  plan 
varying  widely  from  that  of  most  grammars,  and  an  effort  has 
been  made  to  secure  a  more  sensible  and  effective  treatment. 
The  parts  devoted  to  composition  contain  brief  expositions  of 
only  the  essential  principles  of  ordinary  composition.  Especial 
stress  has  been  laid  upon  letter-writing,  since  this  is  believed  to 
be  one  of  the  most  practical  fields  for  actual  composition  work. 
Because  such  a  style  seemed  best  suited  to  the  general  scheme 
and  purpose  of  the  book,  the  method  of  treatment  has  at  times 
been  intentionally  rather  formal. 


^  9  o  •-;  w  A 


vi  PREFACE 

Abundant  and  varied  exercises  have  been  incorporated  at 
frequent  intervals  throughout  the  text.  So  far  as  was  practi- 
cable the  exercises  have  been  kept  constructive  in  their  nature, 
and  upon  critical  points  have  been  made  very  extensive. 

The  author  claims  little  credit  except  for  the  plan  of  the 
book  and  for  the  labor  that  he  has  expended  in  developing  the 
details  of  that  plan  and  in  devising  the  various  exercises.  In 
the  statement  of  principles  and  in  the  working  out  of  details 
great  originality  would  have  been  as  undesirable  as  it  was 
impossible.  Therefore,  for  these  details  the  author  has  drawn 
from  the  great  common  stores  of  learning  upon  the  subjects 
discussed.  No  doubt  many  traces  of  the  books  that  he  has 
used  in  study  and  in  teaching  may  be  found  in  this  volume. 
He  has,  at  times,  consciously  adapted  matter  from  other  texts; 
but,  for  the  most  part,  such  slight  borrowings  as  may  be  dis- 
covered have  been  made  wholly  unconsciously.  Among  the 
books  to  which  he  is  aware  of  heavy  literary  obligations  are 
the  following  excellent  texts:  Lockwood  and  Emerson's  Com- 
position and  Rhetoric,  Sherwin  Cody's  Errors  in  Composition, 
A.  H.  Espenshade's  Composition  and  Rhetoric,  Edwin  C. 
Woolley's  Handbook  of  Composition,  McLean,  Blaisdell  and 
Morrow's  Steps  in  English,  Huber  Gray  Buehler's  Practical 
Exercises  in  English,  and  Carl  C.  Marshall's  Business  Eng- 
lish. 

To  Messrs.  Ginn  and  Company,  publishers  of  Lockwood 
and  Emerson's  Composition  and  Rhetoric,  and  to  the  Goody  ear- 
Marshall  Publishing  Company,  publishers  of  Marshall's  Busi- 
ness English,  the  author  is  indebted  for  their  kind  permission 
to  make  a  rather  free  adaptation  of  certain  parts  of  their 
texts. 

Not  a  little  gratitude  does  the  author  owe  to  those  of  his 
friends  who  have  encouraged  and  aided  him  in  the  preparation 
of  his  manuscript,  and  to  the  careful  criticisms  and  suggestions 
made  by  those  persons  who  examined  the  completed  manu- 
script in  behalf  of  his  publishers.  Above  all,  a  great  debt  of 


PREFACE  vii 

gratitude  is  owed  to  Mr.  Grant  Norris,  Superintendent  of 
Schools,  Braddock,  Pennsylvania,  for  the  encouragement  and 
painstaking  aid  he  has  given  both  in  preparation  of  the  manu- 
script and  in  reading  the  proof  of  the  book. 

T.  W. 

BRADDOCK,  PENNSYLVANIA. 


CONTENTS 


I. — SENTENCES — PARTS    OF    SPEECH — ELEMENTS    OF    THE 

SENTENCE — PHRASES  AND  CLAUSES      .     .  .       .    ..V.  1-6 

II.— NOUNS      .       .       .       .'.•..       .       .      ..       .  7-12 

Common  and  Proper         .       ...       ...        .  7 

Inflection  Defined      .       .     '.:'._.     ...       .  7 

Number     "  .     '  .       .       .      .••""*       •  ^ 

The  Formation  of  Plurals     .        .     .. . .      ...        .  7 

Compound  Nouns .       .  8 

Case ' ;      :,  "    . '       9 

The  Formation  of  the  Possessive  Case       ...  10 

Gender         .       ..       .     '..        .        .       .       ...  12 

III.— PRONOUNS        .       .       .       .       .       .       .       .       .        13-31 

^Agreement  with  Antecedents   .     ,' .      ...       .        .  13 

Person  .        .       .       .     .  .       .       ,       ..    ';.       .  )     ..  13 

Gender  .  .  .  .  .  .,  s..  .  .  •  .  13 

Rules  Governing  Gender  .  .  ;.: .  .  .  .  14 

Number  .  .  .  .  '  .-.  .%  ' -.  .  .  .  15 

Compound  Antecedents  .  .  .  .  .  ,  .  15 

Relative ....  .  .  17 

Interrogative       .       .       .....        .        .        .  19 

Case  Forms  .  .  ....  .  .  .  .  .  20 

Rules  Governing  Use  of  Cases  .  .  .  .  .  21 

Compound  Personal  .  . 26 

Compound  Relative  ... 27 

Adjective     .       .       .       .      . .      . .     . .       .       .       .  28 

Miscellaneous  Cautions  . 29 

IV. — ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS   ...       .       .       .        32-45 

Comparison         .        .    .    •'      .       .       ..       »       .       .  32 

Confusion  of  Adjectives  and  Adverbs     ....  33 


CONTENTS 

APTER  FAGB 

IV. — ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS — Continued. 

Improper  Forms  of  Adjectives        .       .       .       .  36 

Errors  in  Comparison 36 

Singular  and  Plural  Adjectives 39 

Placing  of  Adverbs  and  Adjectives         .       .       .       .  41 

Double  Negatives      .       .       .       .       .       .       .       .42 

The  Articles        .       .       .       .       .       .       .       .       .  43 

V— VERBS       .       .       . 46-100 

Principal  Parts 46 

Name-form      . 47 

Past  Tense 47 

Past  Participle .47 

Transitive  and  Intransitive  Verbs 55 

Active  and  Passive  Voice 56 

Mode .61 

Forms  of  the  Subjunctive 61 

Use  of  Indicative  and  Subjunctive      .       .       .       .  62 

Agreement  of  Verb  with  its  Subject       ....  64 

Rules  Governing  Agreement  of  the  Verb  ...  67 

Miscellaneous  Cautions         .....       .69 

of  Shall  and  Will 71 

of  Should  and  Would 76 

+  Use  of  May  and  Might,  Can  and  Could  ....  79 

Participles  and  Gerunds 80 

Misuses  of  Participles  and  Gerunds    ....  80 

Infinitives    .       .       . 83 

Sequence  of  Infinitive  Tenses 84 

Split  Infinitives      .       ....       .       .       .  85 

Agreement  of  Verb  in  Clauses 86 

Omission  of  Verb  or  Parts  of  Verb         ....  87 

Model  Conjugations 88 

To  Be 88 

To  See 92 

VI. — CONNECTIVES:    RELATIVE    PRONOUNS,    RELATIVE    AD- 
VERBS, CONJUNCTIONS,  AND  PREPOSITIONS      .     101-108 
Independent  and  Dependent  Clauses     .       .       .       .     101 


CONTENTS  Xi 


C*«APTER 

VI.  —  CONNECTIVES.  —  Continued. 

Case   and   Number   of   Relative   and   Interrogative 

Pronouns     .........  101 

Conjunctive  or  Relative  Adverbs    .       .     ;.      -.       .  103 

Conjunctions       .        .        .        .        .,./-..       .  105 

Placing  of  Correlatives      .       .       .       *       .       .       .  105 

Prepositions        .      .........  107 

"JUESTIONS  FOR   THE   REVIEW  OF   GRAMMAR  .          .          .       109-111 

A  GENERAL  EXERCISE  ON  GRAMMAR     .       .       .       .       .     112-116 

VII.—  SENTENCES       .       ...       .       .       .       .       .  .     .     117-135 

Loose    .       .       .       <.       .....',.       ..-.'.       .     117 

Periodic       .       .  .  .       .       .       .       .     117 

Balanced      .       .       .       .       ,       ......       .117 

Sentence  Length        .       ...       •  .     •       •       •       •     117 

~  The  Essential  Qualities  of  a  Sentence    .       .       .       .121 

Unity        .       ..-'..       .       ..-",,       ......       .       .     121 

Coherence        .       .       .....       .       .       .     126 

Emphasis         .........     131 

Euphony  ......       .....     132 

VIH.  —  CAPITALIZATION  AND  PUNCTUATION   .       .       .       .     136-147 

Rules  for  Capitalization    .....       .       .       .     136 

Rules  for  Punctuation       .       .       '.       .       .       .       .     137 

IX.—  THE  PARAGRAPH    .       .       ...       .       ...     148-154 

Length         .-      .       .       .-       ....       .       .       .148 

Paragraphing  of  Speech    .  .....     149 

Indentation  of  the  Paragraph  ......     149 

Essential  Qualities  of  the  Paragraph      ....     149 

Unity       .       .       ....       .       .       .       .     149 

Coherence        .       .       .;      .       .....     151 

Emphasis         .........     153 

X.  —  LETTER-  WRITING     ........     155-173 

Heading       .        .        .       .       .       .        .        .        .        .     155 

Inside  Address    ........       .     157 

Salutation    ..........     159 

Body  of  the  Letter     ......       .       .161 


Xii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

X. — LETTER-WRITING. — Continued. 

Close 163 

Miscellaneous  Directions 164 

Outside  Address 164 

Correctly  Written  Letters .166 

Notes  in  the  Third  Person 171 

XI. — THE  WHOLE  COMPOSITION 174-184 

Statement  of  Subject 174 

The  Outline .     174 

The  Beginning 177 

Essential  Qualities  of  the  Whole  Composition      .       .178 

Unity 178 

Coherence 178 

The  Ending 180 

Illustrative  Examples 

Lincoln's  Gettysburg  Speech 181 

Selection  from  Cranford        ......     181 

List  of  Books  for  Reading 183 

XII. — WORDS — SPELLING — PRONUNCIATION         .       .       „     185-220 

Words 183 

Good  Use 185 

Offenses  Against  Good  Use  .       .       .       .       .       .185 

Solecisms 185 

Barbarisms 185 

Improprieties 190 

Idioms 198 

Choice  of  Words 200 

How  to  Improve  One's  Vocabulary    ....     203 

Spelling 205 

Pronunciation 209 

GLOSSARY  OF  MISCELLANEOUS  ERRORS  221-234 


PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND 
COMPOSITION 


CHAPTER  I 

SENTENCES.— PARTS  OF  SPEECH.— ELEMENTS  OF  THE 
SENTENCE.— PHRASES  AND  CLAUSES 

1.  In  thinking  we  arrange  and  associate  ideas  and  ob- 
jects together.     Words  are  the  symbols  of  ideas  or  objects. 
A  Sentence  is  a  group  of  words  that  expresses  a  single  com- 
plete thought. 

2.  Sentences  are  of  four  kinds: 

1.  Declarative;   a  sentence  that  tells  or  declares  some- 
thing; as,  That  book  is  mine. 

2.  Imperative;   a  sentence    that  expresses  a  command; 
as,  Bring  me  that  book. 

3.  Interrogative;  a  sentence  that  asks  a  question;  as, 
Is  that  book  mine  ? 

4.  Exclamatory;  a  declarative,  imperative,  or  interroga- 
tive sentence  that  expresses  violent  emotion,  such  as  terror, 
surprise,  or  anger;  as,  You  shall  take  that  book!  or,  Can  that 
book  be  mine? 

3.  Parts  of  Speech.  Words  have  different  uses  in  sen- 
tences. According  to  their  uses,  words  are  divided  into 
classes  called  Parts  of  Speech.  The  parts  of  speech  are  as 
follows : 

1.  Noun;  a  word  used  as  the  name  of  something;  as, 
man,  box,  Pittsburg,  Harry,  silence,  justice. 


2  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

2.  Pfdnotfcri;  ,a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun;  as,  7,  het 
it,  that. 

Nouns,  pronouns,  or  groups  of  words  that  are  used  as  nouns 
or  pronouns,  are  called  by  the  general  term,  Substantives. 

3.  Adjective;  a  word  used  to  limit  or  qualify  the  mean- 
ing of  a  noun  or  a  pronoun;  as,  good,  five,  tall,  many. 

The  words  a,  an,  and  the  are  words  used  to  modify  nouns 
or  pronouns.  They  are  adjectives,  but  are  usually  called 
Articles. 

4.  Verb;  a  word  used  to  state  something   about  some 
person  or  thing;  as,  do,  see,  think,  make. 

5.  Adverb;  a  word  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  a 
verb,  an  adjective,  or  another  adverb;  as,  very,  slowly,  clearly , 
often. 

6.  Preposition;  a  word  used  to  join  a  substantive,  as  a 
modifier,  to  some  other  preceding  word,  and  to  show  the  re- 
lation of  the  substantive  to  that  word;  as,  by,  in,  between, 
beyond. 

7.  Conjunction ;  a  word  used  to  connect  words,  phrases, 
clauses,  and  sentences;  as,  and,  but,  if,  although,  or. 

8.  Interjection;  a  word  used  to  express  surprise  or  emo- 
tion ;  as,  Oh  !  Alas  I  Hurrah  !  Bah  ! 

Sometimes  a  word  adds  nothing  to  the  meaning  of  the 
sentence,  but  helps  to  fill  out  its  form  or  sound,  and  serves 
as  a  device  to  alter  its  natural  order.  Such  a  word  is  called 
an  Expletive.  In  the  following  sentence  there  is  an  expletive: 
There  are  no  such  books  in  print. 

4.  A  sentence  is  made  up  of  distinct  parts  or  elements. 
The  essential  or  Principal  Elements  are  the  Subject  and  the 
Predicate. 

The  Subject  of  a  sentence  is  the  part  which  mentions  that 
about  which  something  is  said.  The  Predicate  is  the  part 
which  states  that  which  is  said  about  the  subject.  Man 
walks.  In  this  sentence,  man  is  the  subject,  and  walks  is  the 
predicate. 


SENTENCES.— PARTS  OF  SPEECH  3 

The  subject  may  be  simple  or  modified;  that  is,  may  con- 
sist of  the  subject  alone,  or  of  the  subject  with  its  modifiers. 
The  same  is  true  of  the  predicate.  Thus,  in  the  sentence, 
Man  walks,  there  is  a  simple  subject  and  a  simple  predicate. 
In  the  sentence,  The  good  man  walks  very  rapidly,  there  is  a 
modified  subject  and  a  modified  predicate. 

There  may  be,  also,  more  than  one  subject  connected  with 
the  same  predicate;  as,  The  man  and  the  woman  walk.  This 
is  called  a  Compound  Subject.  A  Compound  Predicate  con- 
sists of  more  than  one  predicate  used  with  the  same  subject; 
as,  The  man  both  walks  and  runs. 

5.  Besides  the  principal  elements  in  a  sentence,  there 
are  Subordinate  Elements.  These  are  the  Attribute  Comple- 
ment, the  Object  Complement,  the  Adjective  Modifier,  and 
the  Adverbial  Modifier. 

Some  verbs,  to  complete  their  sense,  need  to  be  followed 
by  some  other  word  or  group  of  words.  These  words  which 
"complement,"  or  complete  the  meanings  of  verbs  are  called 
Complements. 

The  Attribute  Complement  completes  the  meaning  of  the 
verb  by  stating  some  class,  condition,  or  attribute  of  the  sub- 
ject; as,  My  friend  is  a  student,  I  am  we//,  The  man  is  good. 
Student,  well,  and  good  complete  the  meanings  of  their  respect- 
ive verbs,  by  stating  some  class,  condition,  or  attribute  of 
the  subjects  of  the  verbs. 

The  attribute  complement  usually  follows  the  verb  be 
or  its  forms,  is,  are,  was,  will  be,  etc.  The  attribute  comple- 
ment is  usually  a  noun,  pronoun,  or  adjective,  although  it 
may  be  a  phrase  or  clause  fulfilling  the  function  of  any  of 
these  parts  of  speech.  It  must  not  be  confused  with  an  adverb 
or  an  adverbial  modifier.  In  the  sentence,  He  is  there,  there 
is  an  adverb,  not  an  attribute  complement. 

The  verb  used  with  an  attribute  complement,  because 
such  verb  joins  the  subject  to  its  attribute,  is  called  the 
Copula  ("  to  couple  ")  or  Copulative  Verb. 


4  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

Some  verbs  require  an  object  to  complete  their  meaning. 
This  object  is  called  the  Object  Complement.  In  the  sen- 
tence, /  carry  a  book,  the  object,  book,  is  required  to  complete 
the  meaning  of  the  transitive  verb  carry;  so,  also  in  the  sen- 
tences, /  hold  the  horse,  and  /  touch  a  desk,  the  objects  horse 
and  desk  are  necessary  to  complete  the  meanings  of  their 
respective  verbs.  These  verbs  that  require  objects  to  com- 
plete their  meaning  are  called  Transitive  Verbs. 

Adjective  and  Adverbial  Modifiers  may  consist  simply  of 
adjectives  and  adverbs,  or  of  phrases  and  clauses  used  as 
adjectives  or  adverbs. 

6.  A  Phrase  is  a  group  of  words  that  is  used  as  a  single 
part  of  speech  and  that  does  not  contain  a  subject  and  a 
predicate. 

A  Prepositional  Phrase,  always  used  as  either  an  adjective 
or  an  adverbial  modifier,  consists  of  a  preposition  with  its 
object  and  the  modifiers  of  the  object;  as,  He  lives  in  Piitsburg, 
Mr.  Smith  of  this  place  is  the  manager  of  the  mill,  The  letter 
is  in  the  nearest  desk. 

There  are  also  Verb-phrases.  A  Verb-phrase  is  a  phrase 
that  serves  as  a  verb;  as,  /  am  coming,  He  shall  be  told,  He 
ought  to  have  been  told. 

7.  A  Clause  is  a  group  of  words  containing  a  subject  and 
a  predicate;  as,  The  man  that   I  saw  was  tall.     The  clause, 
that  I  savi,  contains  both  a  subject,  /,  and  a  predicate,  saw. 
This  clause,  since  it  merely  states  something  of  minor  im- 
portance in  the  sentence,  is  called  the  Subordinate  Clause.     The 
Principal  Clause,  the  one  making  the  most  important  assertion, 
is,  The  man  was  tall.     Clauses  may  be  used  as  adjectives,  as 
adverbs,  and  as  nouns.     A  clause  used  as  a  noun  is  called 
a  Substantive  Clause.     Examine  the  following  examples: 

Adjective  Clause :  The  book  that  I  want  is  a  history. 
Adverbial  Clause :  He  came  when  he  had  finished  with  the  work. 
Noun  Clause  as  subject :  That  I  am  here  is  true. 
Noun  Clause  as  object:  He  said  that  I  was  mistaken. 


SENTENCES.— PARTS  OF  SPEECH  5 

8.  Sentences,  as  to  their  composition,  are  classified  as 
follows : 

Simple;  a  sentence  consisting  of  a  single  statement;  as,  The 
man  walks. 

Complex ;  a  sentence  consisting  of  one  principal  clause  and 
one  or  more  subordinate  clauses;  as,  The  man  that  I  saw  is  tall. 

Compound ;  a  sentence  consisting  of  two  or  more  clauses 
of  equal  importance  connected  by  conjunctions  expressed  or 
understood;  as,  The  man  is  tall  and  walks  rapidly,  and 
Watch  the  little  things;  they  are  important. 

Exercise  i 

In  this  and  in  all  following  exercises,  be  able  to  give  the  reason 
for  everything  you  do  and  for  every  conclusion  you  reach.  Only 
intelligent  and  reasoning  work  is  worth  while. 

In  the  following  list  of  sentences: 

(1)  Determine  the  part  of  speech  of  every  word. 

(2)  Determine  the  unmodified  subject  and  the  unmodified 
predicate;  and  the  modified  subject  and  the  modified  predicate, 

(3)  Pick   out  every  attribute  complement  and  every  object 
complement. 

(4)  Pick  out  every  phrase  and  determine  whether  it  is  a 
prepositional  phrase  or  a  verb-phrase.     If  it  is  a  prepositional 
phrase,  determine  whether  it  is  used  as  an  adjective  or  as  an 
adverb. 

(5)  Determine  the  principal  and  the  subordinate  clauses. 
If  they  are  subordinate  clauses,  determine  whether  they  are  used 
as  nouns,  adjectives,  or  adverbs. 

(6)  Classify  every  sentence  as  simple,  complex,  or  compound. 

1.  Houses  are  built  of  wood,  brick,  stone,  and  other  materials, 
and  are  constructed  in  various  styles. 

2.  The  path  of  glory  leads  but  to  the  grave. 

3.  We  gladly  accepted  the  offer  which  he  made. 

4.  I  am  nearly  ready,  and  shall  soon  join  you. 

5.  There  are  few  men  who  do  not  try  to  be  honest. 


B  PRACTICAL   GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

6.  Men  may  come,  and  men  may  go,  but  I  go  on  forever. 

7.  He  works  hard,  and  rests  little. 

8.  She  is  still  no  better,  but  we  hope  that  there  will  be  a  change. 

9.  Let  each  speak  for  himself. 

10.  It  was  I  who  told  him  to  go. 

11.  To  live  an  honest  life  should  be  the  aim  of  every  one. 

12.  Who  it  really  was  no  one  knew,  but  all  believed  it  to  have 
been  him. 

13.  In  city  and  in  country  people  think  very  differently. 

14.  To  be  or  not  to  be,  that  is  the  question. 

15.  In  truth,  I  think  that  I  saw  a  brother  of  his  in  that  place. 

16.  By  a  great  effort  he  managed  to  make  headway  against  the 
current. 

17.  Beyond  this,  I  have  nothing  to  say. 

18.  That  we  are  never  too  old  to  learn  is  a  true  saying. 

19.  Full  often  wished  he  that  the  wind  might  rage. 

20.  Lucky  is  he  who  has  been  educated  to  bear  his  fate. 

21.  It  is  I  whom  you  see. 

22.  The  study  of  history  is  a  study  that  demands  a  well-trained 
memory. 

23.  Beyond  the  city  limits  the  trains  run  more  rapidly  than 
they  do  here. 

24.  Alas!     I  can  travel  no  more. 

25.  A  lamp  that  smokes  is  a  torture  to  one  who  wants  to  study. 

Exercise  2 

(1)  Write  a  list  of  six  examples  of  every  part  of  speech. 

(2)  Write   eight   sentences,    each   containing   an   attribute 
complement.     Use  adjectives,  nouns,  and  pronouns. 

(3)  Write  eight  sentences,  each  containing  an  object  com- 
plement. 

(4)  Write  five  sentences,  in  each  using  some  form  of  the 
verb  to  be,  followed  by  an  adverbial  modifier. 


CHAPTER   II 

NOUNS 

9.  A  noun  has  been  defined  as  a  word  used  as  the  name 
of  something.  It  may  be  the  name  of  a  person,  a  place,  a 
thing,  or  of  some  abstract  quality,  such  as,  justice  or  truth. 

10.  Common  and  Proper  Nouns.     A  Proper  Noun  is  a 
noun  that  names  some  particular   or  special  place,  person, 
people,  or  thing.     A  proper  noun  should  always  begin  with  a 
capital  letter;  as,  English,  Rome,  Jews,  John.     A  Common 
Noun  is  a  general  or  class  name. 

11.  Inflection  Defined.     The  variation  in  the  forms  of 
the  different  parts  of  speech  to  show  grammatical  relation,  is 
called  Inflection.     Though  there  is  some  inflection  in  English, 
grammatical  relation  is  usually  shown  by  position  rather  than 
by  inflection. 

The  noun  is  inflected  to  show  number,  case,  and  gender. 

12.  Number  is  that  quality  of  a  word  which  shows  whether 
it  refers  to  one  or  to  more  than  one.     Singular  Number  refers 
to  one.     Plural  Number  refers  to  more  than  one. 

13.  Plurals  of  singular  nouns  are  formed  according  to 
the  following  rules : 

1.  Most  nouns  add  s  to  the  singular;  as,  boy,  boys;  stove,  stoves. 

2.  Nouns  ending  in  s,  ch,  sh,  or  x,  add  es  to  the  singular;  as,  fox, 
foxes;  wish,  wishes;  glass,  glasses;  coach,  coaches. 

3.  Nouns  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  vowel  (a,  e,  i,  o,  u)  add  s; 
as,  valley,  valleys,  (soliloquy,  soliloquies  and  colloquy,  colloquies  are  ex- 
ceptions).    When  y  is  preceded  by  a  consonant  (any  letter  other  than 
a  vowel),  y  is  changed  to  i  and  es  is  added;  as,  army,  armies;  pony, 
ponies;  sty,  sties. 

4.  Most  nouns  ending  in  /  or  fe  add  s;  as,  scarf,  scarfs;  safe,  safes. 

7 


8  PRACTICAL   GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

A  few  change  /  or  fe  to  v  and  add  es;  as,  wife,  wives;  self,  selves.  The 
others  are:  beef,  calf,  elf,  half,  leaf,  loaf,  sheaf,  shelf,  staff,  thief,  wharf, 
wolf,  life.  (Wharf  has  also  a  plural,  wharfs.) 

5.  Most  nouns  ending  in  o  add  s;  as,  cameo,  cameos.   A  number  of 
nouns  ending  in  o  preceded  by  a  consonant  add  es;  as,  volcano,  volcanoes. 
The  most  important  of  the  latter  class  are:  buffalo,  cargo,  calico,  echo, 
embargo,  flamingo,  hero,  motto,  mulatto,  negro,  potato,  tomato,  tornado, 
torpedo,  veto. 

6.  Letters,  figures,  characters,  etc.,  add  the  apostrophe  and  s 
('s);  as,  6's,  c's,  t's,  that's. 

7.  The  following  common  words  always  form  their  plurals  in  an 
irregular  way;  as,  man,  men;  ox,  oxen;  goose,  geese;  woman,  women; 
foot,  feet;  mouse,  mice;  child,  children;  tooth,  teeth;  louse,  lice. 

Compound  Nouns  are  those  formed  by  the  union  of  two 
words,  either  two  nouns  or  a  noun  joined  to  some  descriptive 
word  or  phrase. 

8.  The  principal  noun  of  a  compound  noun,  whether  it  precedes 
or  follows  the  descriptive  part,  is  in  most  cases  the  noun  that  changes 
in  forming  the  plural;  as,  mothers-in-law,  knights-errant,  mouse-traps. 
In  a  few  compound  words,  both  parts  take  a  plural  form;  as,  man- 
servant, men-servants;  knight-templar,  knights-templars. 

9.  Proper  names  and  titles  generally  form  plurals  in  the  same  way 
as  do  other  nouns;  as,  Senators  Webster  and  Clay,  the  three  Henrys. 
Abbreviations  of  titles  are  little  used  in  the  plural,  except  Messrs. 
(Mr.),  and  Drs.  (Dr.). 

10.  In  forming  the  plurals  of  proper  names  where  a  title  is  used, 
either  the  title  or  the  name  may  be  put  in  the  plural  form.     Sometimes 
both  are  made  plural;- as,  Miss  Brown,  the  Misses  Brown,  the  Miss 
Browns,  the  two  Mrs.  Browns. 

11.  Some  nouns  are  the  same  in  both  the  singular  and  the  plural; 
as,  deer,  series,  means,  gross,  etc. 

12.  Some  nouns  used  in  two  senses  have  two  plural  forms.     The 
most  important  are  the  following: 

brother  brothers  (by  blood)  brethren  (by  association) 

cloth  cloths  (kinds  of  cloth)  clothes  (garments) 

die  dies  (for  coinage)  dice  (for  games) 

fish  fishes  (separately)  fish  (collectively) 


NOUNS  9 

genius  geniuses  (men  of  genius)  genii  (imaginary  beings) 

head  heads  (of  the  body)  head  (of  cattle) 

index  indexes  (of  books)  indices  (in  algebra) 

pea  peas  (separately)  pease  (collectively) 

penny  pennies  (separately)  pence  (collectively) 

sail  sails  (pieces  of  canvas)  sail  (number  of  vessels) 

shot  shots  (number  of  discharges)        shot  (number  of  balls) 

13.  Nouns  from  foreign  languages  frequently  retain  in  the  plural 
the  form  that  they  have  in  the  language  from  which  they  are  taken; 
as,  focus,  foci;  terminus,  termini;  alumnus,  alumni;  datum,  data;  stratum, 
strata;  formula,  formulce;  vortex,  vortices;  appendix,  appendices;  crisis, 
crises;  oasis,  oases;  axis,  axes;  phenomenon,  phenomena;  automaton, 
automata;   analysis,  analyses;  hypothesis,  hypotheses;  medium,  media; 
vertebra,   vertebra;   ellipsis,   ellipses;    genus,    genera;   fungus,    fungi; 
minimum,  minima;  thesis,  theses. 

Exercise  3 

Write  the  plural,  if  any,  of  every  singular  noun  in  the  fol- 
lowing list;  and  the  singular,  if  any,  of  every  plural  noun.  Note 
those  having  no  singular  and  those  having  no  plural. 

News,  goods,  thanks,  scissors,  proceeds,  puppy,  studio,  survey, 
attorney,  arch,  belief,  chief,  charity,  half,  hero,  negro,  majority,  Mary, 
vortex,  memento,  joy,  lily,  knight-templar,  knight-errant,  why,  4, 
x,  son-in-law,  Miss  Smith,  Mr.  Anderson,  country-man,  hanger-on, 
major-general,  oxen,  geese,  man-servant,  brethren,  strata,  sheep, 
mathematics,  pride,  money,  pea,  head,  piano,  veto,  knives,  ratios, 
alumni,  feet,  wolves,  president,  sailor-boy,  spoonful,  rope-ladder, 
grandmother,  attorney-general,  cupful,  go-between. 

When  in  doubt  respecting  the  form  of  any  of  the  above,  con- 
sult an  unabridged  dictionary. 

14.  Case.     There  are  three  cases  in  English:  the  Nomi- 
native, the  Possessive,  and  the  Objective. 

The  Nominative  Case ;  the  form  used  in  address  and  as  the 
subject  of  a  verb. 

The  Objective  Case;  the  form  used  as  the  object  of  a  verb  or  a 
preposition.  It  is  always  the  same  in  form  as  is  the  nominative. 


10  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

Since  no  error  in  grammar  can  arise  in  the  use  of  the  nomi- 
native or  the  objective  cases  of  nouns,  no  further  discussion, 
of  these  cases  is  here  needed. 

The  Possessive  Case ;  the  form  used  to  show  ownership. 
In  the  forming  of  this  case  we  have  inflection. 

15.  The  following  are  the  rules  for  the  forming  of  the 
possessive  case : 

1.  Most  nouns  form  the  possessive  by  adding  the  apostrophe  and 
s  ('s);  as,  man,  man's;  men,  men's;  pupil,  pupil's;  John,  John's. 

2.  Plural  nouns  ending  in  s  form  the  possessive  by  adding  only  the 
apostrophe    (')>  &s,   persons,   persons';  writers,   writers'.     In   stating 
possession  in  the  plural,  then  one  should  say:  Carpenters'  tools  sharpened 
here,  Odd  Fellows'  wives  are  invited,  etc. 

3.  Some  singular  nouns  ending  in  an  s  sound  form  the  possessive 
by  adding  the  apostrophe  alone ;  as,  for  appearance'  sake,  for  goodness' 
sake.     But  usage  inclines  to  the  adding  of  the  apostrophe  and  s  ('s) 
even  if  the  singular  noun  does  end  in  an  s  sound;  as,  Charles's  book, 
Frances's  dress,  the  mistress's  dress. 

4.  When  a  compound  noun,  or  a  group  of  words  treated  as  one 
name,  is  used  to  denote  possession,  the  sign  of  the  possessive  is  added 
to  the  last  word  only;  as,  Charles  and  John's  mother  (the  mother  of  both 
Charles  and  John),  Brown  and  Smith's  store  (the  store  of  the  firm 
Brown  &  Smith). 

5.  Where  the  succession  of  possessives  is  unpleasant  or  confusing, 
the  substitution  of  a  prepositional  phrase  should  be  made ;  as,  the  house 
of  the  mother  of  Charles's  partner,  instead  of,  Charles's  partner's  mother's 
house. 

6.  The  sign  of  the  possessive  should  be  used  with  the  word  immedi- 
ately preceding  the  word  naming  the  thing  possessed ;  as,  Father  and 
mother's  house,  Smith,  the  lawyer's,  office,  The  Senator  from  Utah's  seat. 

7.  Generally,  nouns  representing  inanimate  objects  should  not 
be  used  in  the  possessive  case.     It  is  better  to  say  the  hands  of  the  clock 
than  the  clock's  hands. 

NOTE. — One  should  say  somebody  else's,  not  somebody's  else.  The 
expression  somebody  else  always  occurs  in  the  one  form,  and  in  such 
cases  the  sign  of  the  possessive  should  be  added  to  the  last  word. 
Similarly,  say,  no  one  else's,  everybody  else's,  etc. 


NOUNS  11 

Exercise  4 

Write  the  possessives  of  the  following: 

Oxen,  ox,  brother-in-law,  Miss  Jones,  goose,  man,  men,  men- 
servants,  man-servant,  Maine,  dogs,  attorneys-at-law,  Jackson  & 
Jones,  John  the  student,  my  friend  John,  coat,  shoe,  boy,  boys,  Mayor 
of  Cleveland. 

Exercise  5 

Write  sentences  illustrating  the  use  of  the  possessives  you 
have  formed  for  the  first  ten  words  under  Exercise  4. 

Exercise  6 

Change  the  following  expressions  from  the  prepositional 
phrase  form  to  the  possessive: 

1.  The  ships  of  Germany  and  France. 

2.  The  garden  of  his  mother  and  sister. 

3.  The  credit  of  Jackson  &  Jones. 

4.  The  signature  of  the  president  of  the  firm. 

5.  The  coming  of  my  grandfather. 

6.  The  lives  of  our  friends. 

7.  The  dog  of  both  John  and  William. 

8.  The  dog  of  John  and  the  dog  of  William. 

9.  The  act  of  anybody  else. 

10.  The  shortcomings  of  Alice. 

11.  The  poems  of  Robert  Burns. 

12.  The  wives  of  Henry  the  Eighth. 

13.  The  home  of  Mary  and  Martha. 

14.  The  novels  of  Dickens  and  the  novels  of  Scott. 

15.  The  farm  of  my  mother  and  of  my  father. 

16.  The  recommendation  of  Superintendent  Norris. 

Exercise  7 

Correct  such  of  the  following  expressions  as  need  correction. 
If  apostrophes  are  omitted,  insert  them  in  the  proper  places: 

1.  He  walked  to  the  precipices  edge. 

2.  Both  John  and  William's  books  were  lost. 


12  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

3.  They  sell  boy's  hats  and  mens'  coats. 

4.  My  friends'  umbrella  was  stolen. 

5.  I  shall  buy  a  hat  at  Wanamaker's  &  Brown's. 

6.  This  student's  lessons. 

7.  These  students  books. 

8.  My  daughters  coming. 

9.  John's  wife's  cousin. 

10.  My  son's  wife's  aunt. 

11.  Five  years  imprisonment  under  Texas 's  law. 

12.  John's  books  and  Williams. 

13.  The  Democrat's  and  Republican  Convention. 

14.  France's  and  England's  interests  differ  widely. 

15.  The  moons'  face  was  hidden. 

16.  Wine  is  made  from  the  grape's  juice. 

17.  Morton,  the  principals,  signature. 

18.  Jones  &  Smith,  the  lawyers,  office. 

16.  Gender.  Gender  in  grammar  is  the  quality  of  nouns 
or  pronouns  that  denotes  the  sex  of  the  person  or  thirfg  repre- 
sented. Those  nouns  or  pronouns  meaning  males  are  in  the 
Masculine  Gender.  Those  meaning  females  are  in  the  Femi- 
nine Gender.  Those  referring  to  things  without  sex  are  in 
the  Neuter  Gender. 

In  nouns  gender  is  of  little  consequence.  The  only  regular 
inflection  is  the  addition  of  the  syllable-ess  to  certain  masculine 
nouns  to  denote  the  change  to  the  feminine  gender;  as,  author, 
authoress]  poet,  poetess.  -Ix  is  also  sometimes  added  for  the 
same  purpose;  as,  administrator,  administratrix. 

The  feminine  forms  were  formerly  much  used,  but  their 
use  is  now  being  discontinued,  and  the  noun  of  masculine 
gender  used  to  designate  both  sexes. 


CHAPTER   III 
PRONOUNS 

17.  Pronoun  and  Antecedent.     A  Pronoun  is  a  word  used 
instead  of  a  noun.     The  noun  in  whose  stead  it  stands  is  called 
its  Antecedent.     John  took  Mary's  book  and  gave  it  to  his  jriend. 
In  this  sentence  book  is  the  antecedent  of  the  pronoun  it,  and 
John  is  the  antecedent  of  his. 

18.  Pronouns  should    agree  with   their   antecedents   in 
person,  gender,  and  number. 

19.  Personal  Pronouns  are  those  that  by  their  form  in- 
dicate the  speaker,  the  person  spoken  to,  or  the  person  or 
thing  spoken  about. 

Pronouns  of  the  First  Person  indicate  the  speaker;  they  are: 
I,  me,  my,  mine,  we,  us,  our,  ours. 

Pronouns  of  the  Second  Person  indicate  the  person  or 
thing  spoken  to;  they  are:  you,  your,  yours.  There  are  also 
the  grave  or  solemn  forms  in  the  second  person,  which  are  now 
little  used;  these  are:  thou,  thee,  thy,  thine,  and  ye. 

Pronouns  of  the  Third  Person  indicate  the  person  or  thing 
spoken  of;  they  are:  he,  his,  him,  she,  her,  hers,  they,  their , 
theirs,  them,  it,  its. 

Few  errors  are  made  in  the  use  of  the  proper  person  of 
the  pronoun. 

20.  Gender  of  Pronouns.     The  following  pronouns  indi- 
cate sex  or  gender;  Masculine:  he,  his,  him.     Feminine:  she, 
her,  hers.     Neuter:  it,  its. 

In  order  to  secure  agreement  in  gender  it  is  necessary  to 
know  the  gender  of  the  noun,  expressed  or  understood,  to  which 
the  pronoun  refers.  Gender  of  nouns  is  important  only  so 
far  as  it  concerns  the  use  of  pronouns.  Study  carefully  the 

13 


14  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

following  rules  in  regard  to  gender.  These  rules  apply  to 
the  singular  number  only,  since  all  plurals  of  whatever  gender 
are  referred  to  by  they,  their,  theirs,  etc. 

The  following  rules  govern  the  gender  of  pronouns: 
Masculine;  referred  to  by  he,  his,  and  him: 

1.  Nouns  denoting  males  are  always  masculine. 

2.  Nouns  denoting  things  remarkable  for  strength,  power,  sub- 
limity, or  size,  when  those  things  are  regarded  as  if  they  were  persons, 
are  masculine;  as,  Winter,  with  his  chilly  army,  destroyed  them  all. 

3.  Singular  nouns  denoting  persons  of  both  sexes  are  masculine; 
as,  Every  one  brought  his  umbrella. 

Feminine;  referred  to  by  she,  her,  or  hers: 

1.  Nouns  denoting  females  are  always  feminine. 

2.  Nouns  denoting  objects  remarkable  for  beauty,  gentleness, 
and  peace,  when  spoken  of  as  if  they  were  persons,  are  feminine;  as, 
Sleep  healed  him  with  her  fostering  care. 

Neuter;  referred  to  by  it  and  its: 

1.  Nouns  denoting  objects  without  sex  are  neuter. 

2.  Nouns  denoting  objects  whose  sex  is  disregarded  are  neuter;  as, 
It  is  a  pretty  child,  The  wolf  is  the  most  savage  of  its  race. 

3.  Collective  nouns  referring  to  a  group  of  individuals  as  a  unit 
are  neuter;  as,  The  jury  gives  its  verdict,  The  committee  makes  its  report. 

An  animal  named  may  be  regarded  as  masculine,  feminine,  or 
neuter,  according  to  the  characteristics  the  writer  fancies  it  to  possess; 
as,  The  wolf  seeks  his  prey,  The  mouse  nibbled  her  way  into  the  box. 
The  bird  seeks  its  nest. 

Certain  nouns  may  be  applied  to  persons  of  either  sex.  They 
are  then  said  to  be  of  Common  Gender.  There  are  no  pronouns  of 
common  gender;  hence  those  nouns  are  referred  to  as  follows: 

1.  By  masculine  pronouns  when  known  to  denote  males;  as, 
My  class-mate  (known  to  be  Harry)  is  taking  his  examinations. 

2.  By  feminine  pronouns  when  known  to  denote  females;  as, 
Each  of  the  pupils  of  the  Girls  High  School  brought  her  book. 


PRONOUNS  15 

3.  By  masculine  pronouns  when  there  is  nothing  in  the  connec- 
tion of  the  thought  to  show  the  sex  of  the  object ;  as,  Let  every  person 
bring  his  book. 

21.  Number  of  Pronouns.     A  more   common  source  of 
error  than  disagreement  in  gender  is  disagreement  in  number. 
They,   their,   theirs,  and  them  are  plural,  but  are  often  im- 
properly used  when  only  singular  pronouns  should  be  used. 
The  cause  of  the  error  is  failure  to  realize  the  true  antecedent. 

//  anybody  makes  that  statement,  they  are  misinformed. 
This  sentence  is  wrong.  Anybody  refers  to  only  one  person; 
both  any  and  body,  the  parts  of  the  word,  denote  the  singular. 
The  sentence  should  read,  //  anybody  makes  that  statement, 
he  is  misinformed.  Similarly,  Let  everybody  keep  their  peace, 
should  read,  Let  everybody  keep  his  peace. 

22.  Compound  Antecedents.     Two  or  more  antecedents 
connected   by   or    or    nor  are  frequently  referred  to  by  the 
plural  when  the  singular  should  be  used.     Neither  John  nor 
James   brought    their  books,  should   read,    Neither   John   nor 
James  brought  his  books.     When  a  pronoun  has  two  or  more 
singular  antecedents  connected   by   or   or   nor,   the  pronoun 
must  be  in  the  singular  number;  but  if  one  of  the  antecedents 
is  plural,  the  pronoun  must,  also,  be  in  the  plural;  as,  Neither 
the  Mormon  nor  his  wives  denied  their  religion. 

When  a  pronoun  has  two  or  more  antecedents  connected 
by  and,  the  pronoun  must  be  in  the  plural  number;  as,  John 
and  James  brought  their  books. 

Further  treatment  of  number  will  be  given  under  verbs. 

Exercise  8 

Fill  in  the  blanks  in  the  following  sentences  with  the  proper 
pronouns.  See  that  there  is  agreement  in  person,  gender,  and 
number: 

1.  Has  everybody  finished work. 

2.  If  any  one  wishes  a  longer  time,  let hold  up hand. 

3.  The  panther  sprang  from lurking  placeX^ 


16  PRACTICAL   GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

4.  Many  a  man  has  (have)  lost money  in  speculation. 

5.  The  cat  came  each  day  for bit  of  meat. 

6.  Every  one  has  to  prove right  to  a  seat. 

7.  Let  every  boy  answer  for self  (selves). 

8.  The  crowd  was  so  great  that  we  could  hardly  get  through . 

9.  Let  any  boy  guess  this  riddle  if can. 

10.  Company  H  was  greatly  reduced  in numbers. 

11.  Every  animal  has  some  weapon  with  which can  defend 

• self  (selves). 

12.  Nowhere  does  each  dare  do  as pleases  (please). 

13.  The  elephant  placed great  foot  on  the  man's  chest. 

14.  The  child  did  not  know mother. 

15.  Death  gathers unfailing  harvest. 

16.  Every  kind  of  animal  has natural  enemies. 

17.  The  committee  instructed chairman  to  report  the  matter. 

18.  Two  men  were  present,  but  neither  would  tell  what saw. 

19.  Truth  always  triumphs  over enemies. 

20.  Nobody  did duty  more  readily  than  I. 

21.  The  cat  never  fails  to  catch prey. 

22.  I  have  used  both  blue  crayon  and  red  crayon,  but does 

(do)  not  write  so  clearly  as  white. 

23.  If  John  and  Henry  whisper  (whispers) will  be  punished. 

24.  If  John  or  Henry  whisper  (whispers) will  be  punished. 

25.  Both  Columbus  and  Cabot  failed  to  realize  the  importance 
of discoveries. 

26.  Neither  the  lawyer  nor  the  sheriff  liked task. 

27.  The  canary  longed  to  escape  from cage. 

28.  The  rat  ran  to hole. 

29.  The  dog  seemed  to  know master  was  dead. 

30.  Every  one  should  try  to  gather  a  host  of  friends  about . 

31.  If    any    one    wishes  to  see  me,  send  to  the   Pierce 

Building. 

32.  Probably  everybody  is  discouraged  at  least  once  in life. 

33.  Nobody  should  deceive selves  (self). 

34.  Let  each  take own  seat. 

35.  Let  each  girl  in  the  class  bring book. 

36.  Let  each  bring book. 

37.  Let  each  bring sewing. 


PRONOUNS  17 

38.  The  fox  dropped meat  in  the  pool. 

39.  The  rock  lay  on side. 

40.  Let  sleep  enter  with healing  touch. 

41.  Each  believed  that had  been  elected  a  delegate  to  the 

Mother's  Congress. 

42.  Consumption  demands  each  year thousands  of  victims. 

43.  Summer  arrays self  (selves)  with  flowers. 

44.  Despair  seized  him  in powerful  grasp. 

45.  If  any  boy  or  any  girl  finds  the  book,  let bring  it  to  me. 

46.  Let  every  man  and  every  woman  speak mind.  ^ 

47.  Spring  set  forth beauties. 

48.  How  does  the  mouse   save   self  (selves)   from  being 

caught? 

49.  The  hen  cackled loudest. 

50.  Some  man  or  boy  lost hat. 

51.  John  or  James  will  favor  us  with company. 

52.  Neither  the  captain  nor  the  soldiers  showed self  (selves) 

during  the  fight. 

53.  If  the  boys  or  their  father  come  we  shall  be  glad  to  see . 

54.  Every  man  and  every  boy  received dinner. 

55.  Every  man  or  boy  gave offering. 

Exercise  9 

By  what  gender  of  the  pronouns  would  you  refer  to  the  fol- 
lowing nouns? 

Snake,  death,  care,  mercy,  fox,  bear,  walrus,  child,  baby,  friend 
(uncertain  sex),  friend  (known  to  be  Mary),  everybody,  someone, 
artist,  flower,  moon,  sun,  sorrow,  fate,  student,  foreigner,  Harvard 
University,  earth,  Germany? 

23.  Relative  Pronouns.  Relative  Pronouns  are  pronouns 
used  to  introduce  adjective  or  noun  clauses  that  are  not  in- 
terrogative. In  the  sentence,  The  man  that  I  mentioned  has 
come,  the  relative  clause,  that  I  mentioned,  is  an  adjective 
clause  modifying  man.  In  the  sentence,  Whom  she  means, 
I  do  not  know,  the  relative  clause  is,  whom  she  means,  and 
is  a  noun  clause  forming  the  object  of  the  verb  know. 


18  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

The  relative  pronouns  are  who  (whose,  whom) ,  which,  that 
and  what.  But  and  as  are  sometimes  relative  pronouns. 
There  are,  also,  compound  relative  pronouns,  which  will  be 
mentioned  later. 

24.  Who  (with  its  possessive  and  objective  forms,  whose 
and   whom)    should   be   used   when   the   antecedent   denotes 
persons.     When  the   antecedent   denotes  things  or  animals, 
which  should  be  used.     That  may  be  used  with  antecedents 
denoting  persons,  animals  or  things,  and  is  the  proper  rela- 
tive to  use  when  the  antecedent  includes  both  persons  and 
things.     What,    when    used    as    a   relative,   seldom   properly 
refers  to  persons.     It  always  introduces  a  substantive  clause, 
and   is  equivalent  to  that  which;  as,  It  is   what  (that  which) 
he  wants. 

25.  That  is  known  as  the  Restrictive  Relative,  because 
it  should  be  used  whenever  the  relative  clause  limits  the  sub- 
stantive, unless  who  or  which  is  of  more  pleasing  sound  in  the 
sentence.     In  the  sentence,  He  is  the  man  that  did  the  act,  the 
relative  clause,  that  did  the  act,  defines  what  is  meant  by  man; 
without  the  relative  clause  the  sentence  clearly  would  be 
incomplete.     Similarly,  in  the  sentence,  The  book  that  I  want 
is  that  red-backed  history,  the  restrictive  relative  clause  is,  that 
I  want,  and  limits  the  application  of  book. 

26.  Who  and  which  are  known  as  the  Explanatory  or 
Non- Restrictive  Relatives,  and  should  be  used  ordinarily  only 
to  intro'duce  relative  clauses  which  add  some  new  thought 
to  the  author's  principal  thought.     Spanish,  which  is  the  /east 
complex  language,  is  the  easiest  to     learn.     In  this  sentence 
the  principal  thought  is,  Spanish  is  the  easiest  language  to 
learn.     The  relative  clause,  which  is  the  least  complex  language, 
is  a  thought,  which,  though  not  fully  so  important  as  the 
principal  thought,  is  more  nearly  coordinate  than  subordinate 
in  its  value.     It  adds  an  additional  thought  of  the  speaker 
explaining  the   character   of   the   Spanish   language.     When 
who  and  which  are  thus  used  as  explanatory  relatives,  we  see 


PRONOUNS  19 

that  the  relative  clause  may  be  omitted  without  making  the 
sentence  incomplete. 

Compare  the  following  sentences: 

Explanatory  relative  clause:  That  book,  which  is  about  history, 
has  a  red  cover. 

Restrictive  relative  clause:  The  book  that  is  about  history  has  a 
red  cover. 

Explanatory  relative  clause:  Lincoln,  who  was  one  of  the  world's 
greatest  men,  was  killed  by  Booth. 

Restrictive  relative  clause:  The  Lincoln  that  was  killed  by  Booth 
was  one  of  the  world's  greatest  men. 

NOTE. — See §n i,  for  rule  as  to  the  punctuation  of  relative  clauses. 

27.  Interrogative  Pronouns.  An  Interrogative  Pronoun 
is  a  pronoun  used  to  ask  a  question.  The  interrogative  pro- 
nouns are,  who  (whose,  whom),  which,  and  what.  In  respect 
to  antecedents,  who  should  be  used  only  in  reference  to  persons ; 
which  and  what  may  be  used  with  any  antecedent,  persons, 
animals,  or  things. 

Exercise  10 

Choose  the  proper  relative  or  interrogative  pronoun  to  be 
inserted  in  each  of  the  following  sentences.  Insert  commas  where 
they  are  needed.  (See  §m) : 

1.  The  kindly  physician was  so  greatly  loved  is  dead. 

2.  This  is  the  man all  are  praising. 

3.  John is  my  coachman  is  sick. 

4.  The  intelligence  he  displayed  was  remarkable. 

5.  Intelligence he  had  hitherto  not  manifested  now  showed 

its  presence. 

6.  He  maintains  that  the  book you  used  is  now  ruined. 

(Does  which  or  that  have  the  more  pleasing  sound  here?) 

7.  The  pleasure  education  gives  the  man has  it  is  a 

sufficient  reward  for  the  trouble it  has  cost. 

8.  That  man wears  a  cap  is  a  foreigner. 

9.  The  best  hotel  is  the  one is  nearest  the  station. 


20  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

10.  Who  is  it is  worthy  of  that  honor? 

11.  The  carriages  and  the  drivers  -^-i—  you  ordered  yesterday 
have  arrived. 

12.  thing  is  it you  want? 

13.  He  purchased he  wished. 

14.  There  is  no  cloud has  not  its  silver  lining. 

15.  It  is  the  same  dog I  bought. 

16.  The  man  and  horse you  see  pass  here  every  afternoon. 

17.  -  did  they  seek? 

18.  They  inquired he  was  going  to  do. 

19.  Who  was  it lost  the  book? 

20.  The  man was  a  Frenchman  was  very  much  excited. 

21.  It  is  neither  the  party  nor  its  candidate gains  support. 

22.  That  is  a  characteristic makes  him  seem  almost  ruds. 

23.  It  is  the  same  tool I  used  all  day. 

24.  He  is  a  man inspires  little  confidence. 

25.  does  he  expect  of  us? 

26.  It  is  just  such  a  thing I  need. 

27.  There  are  few will  vote  for  him. 

28.  The  wagon  and  children  you  just  saw  came  from  our 

town. 

29.  He writes  out  his  lesson  does  all can  be  expected. 

30.  Was  it  you  or  the  cat made  that  noise? 

31.  It  is  the  same  song he  always  sings. 

32.  Such I  have  is  yours. 

33.  All  the  men  and  horses we  had  were  lost. 

34.  That  is pleased  me  most  and every  one  talked  about. 

35.  The  horse  was  one 1  had  never  ridden  before. 

is every  one  said. 


28.  Case  Forms  of  Pronouns.  Some  personal,  relative, 
and  interrogative  pronouns  have  distinctive  forms  for  the 
different  cases,  and  the  failure  to  use  the  proper  case  forms 
in  the  sentence  is  one  of  the  most  frequent  sources  of  error. 
The  case  to  be  used  is  to  be  determined  by  the  use  which  the 
pronoun,  not  its  antecedent,  has  in  the  sentence.  In  the  sen- 
tence, I  name  him,  note  that  Mm  is  the  object  of  the  verb  name. 
In  the  sentence,  Whom  do  you  seek,  although  coming  at  the 


PRONOUNS  21 

first  of  the  sentence,  whom  is  grammatically  the  object  of  the 
verb  seek.  In  the  use  of  pronouns  comes  the  most  important 
need  for  a  knowledge  of  when  to  use  the  different  cases. 

Note  the  following  different  case  forms  of  pronouns: 

Nominative:  I,  we,  you,  thou,  ye,  he,  she,  they,  it,  who. 

Objective:  me,  us,  you,  thee,  ye,  him,  her,  it,  them,  whom. 

Possessive:  my,  mine,  our,  ours,  thy,  thine,  your,  yourst 
his,  her,  hers,  its,  their,  theirs,  whose. 

It  will  be  noted  that,  while  some  forms  are  the  same  In 
both  the  nominative  and  objective  cases,  I,  we,  he,  she,  they, 
thou,  and  who  are  only  proper  where  the  nominative  case 
should  be  used.  Me,  us,  him,  them,  thee,  whom,  and  her, 
except  when  her  is  possessive,  are  only  proper  when  the 
objective  case  is  demanded.  These  forms  must  be  remembered. 
It  is  only  with  these  pronouns  that  mistakes  are  made  in  the 
use  of  the  nominative  and  objective  cases. 

29.  The  following  outline  explains  the  use  of  the  different 
case  forms  of  the  pronouns.  The  outline  should  be  mastered. 

The  Nominative  Case  should  be  used : 

1.  When  the  noun  or  pronoun   is   the   subject  of  a  finite  verb; 
that  is,  a  verb  other  than  an  infinitive.     See  3  under  Objective  Case. 

2.  When  it  is  an  attribute  complement.      An  attribute  comple- 
ment, as  explained  in  Chapter  I,  is  a  word  used  in  the  predicate  ex- 
plaining or  stating  something  about  the  subject.      Examples :  It  is  /, 
The  man  was  he,  The  people  were  they  of  whom  we  spoke. 

3.  When  it  is  used  without  relation  to  any  other  part  of  speech, 
as  in  direct  address  or  exclamation. 

The  Objective  Case  should  be  used : 

1.  When  the  noun  or  pronoun  is  the  object  of  a  verb;  as,  He 
named  me,   She  deceived  them,  They  watch  us. 

2.  When  it  is  the  object  of  a  preposition,  expressed  or  understood; 
as,  He  spoke  of  me,  For  whom  do  you  take  me,  He  told  (to)  me  a  story. 

3.  When  it  is  the  subject  of  an  infinitive;  as,  /  told  him  to  go, 
I  desire  her  to  hope.    The  infinitives  are  the  parts  of  the  verb  preceded 
by  to;  as,  to  go,  to  see,  to  be,  to  have  been  seen,  etc.    The  sign  of  the  in- 

3 


22  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

finitive,  to,  is  not  always  expressed.    The  objective  case  is,  neverthe- 
less, used;  as,  Let  him  (to)  go,  Have  her  (to  be)  told  about  it. 

4.  When  it  is  an  attribute  complement  of  an  expressed  subject 
of  the  infinitive  to  be;  as,  They  believed  her  to  be  me,  He  denied  it  to  have 
been  him.  (See  Note  2  below.) 

The  Possessive  Case  should  be  used : 

When  the  word  is  used  as  a  possessive  modifier;  as,  They  spoke 
of  her  being  present,  The  book  is  his  (book),  It  is  their  fault. 

NOTE  1. — When  a  substantive  is  placed  by  the  side  of  another 
substantive  and  is  used  to  explain  it,  it  is  said  to  be  in  Apposition  with 
that  other  substantive  and  takes  the  case  of  that  word ;  as,  It  was  given 
to  John  Smith,  him  whom  you  see  there. 

NOTE  2. — The  attribute  complement  should  always  have  the  case 
of  that  subject  of  the  verb  which  is  expressed  in  the  sentence.  Thus, 
in  the  sentence,  I  could  not  wish  John  to  be  him,  him  is  properly  in 
the  objective  case,  since  there  is  an  expressed  subject  of  the  infinitive, 
John,  which  is  in  the  objective  case.  But  in  the  sentence,  /  should 
hate  to  be  he,  he  is  properly  in  the  nominative  case,  since  the  only 
subject  that  is  expressed  in  the  sentence  is  /,  in  the  nominative  case. 

NOTE  3. — Where  the  relative  pronoun  who  (whom)  is  the  subject 
of  a  clause  that  itself  is  the  object  clause  of  a  verb  or  a  preposi- 
tion, it  is  always  in  the  nominative  case.  Thus  the  following  sen- 
tences are  both  correct :  /  delivered  it  to  who  owned  it,  Bring  home  who- 
ever will  come  with  you. 

Exercise  n 

Write  sentences  illustrating  the  correct  use  of  each  of  the 
following  pronouns: 

I,  whom,  who,  we,  me,  us,  they,  whose,  theirs,  them,  she,  him,  he, 
its,  mine,  our,  thee,  thou. 

Exercise  12 

In  the  following  sentences  choose  the  proper  form  from  the 
words  in  italics: 

1.  My  brother  and  /  me  drove  to  the  east  end  of  the  town0 

2.  Between  you  and  /  me  things  are  doubtful. 


PRONOUNS  23 

3.  May  James  and  /  me  go  to  the  circus? 

4.  Will  you  permit  James  and  /  me  to  go  to  the  play? 

5.  Who  made  that  noise  ?     Only  /  me. 

6.  He  introduced  us  all,  /  me  among  the  rest. 

7.  He  promised  to  bring  candy  to  Helen  and  /  me. 

8.  Was  it  /  me  that  you  asked  for? 

9.  Who  spoke?    I  me. 

10.  I  am  taken  to  be  he  him. 

11.  No,  it  could  not  have  been  me  I. 

12.  All  have  gone  but  you  and  /  me. 

13.  You  suffer  more  than  me  I. 

14.  Everyone  has  failed  in  the  examination  except  you  and  /  me. 

15.  He  asked  you  and  /  me  to  come  to  his  office. 

16.  See  if  there  is  any  mail  for  Mary  and  me  I. 

17.  Neither  you  nor  /  me  can  teach  the  class. 

18.  They  think  it  to  be  /  me. 

19.  This  is  the  student  whom  who  all  are  praising. 

20.  The  one  that  is  he  him  wears  a  brown  hat. 

21.  He  is  a  man  who  whom  all  admired. 

22.  He  is  one  of  those  men  who  whom  we  call  snobs. 

23.  I  did  not  see  that  it  was  her  she. 

24.  It  is  in  fact  he  him. 

25.  He  still  believes  it  to  be  them  they. 

26.  Between  you  and  /  me,  it  is  my  opinion  that  him  he  and  John 
will  disagree. 

27.  We  saw  John  and  she  her;  we  know  it  was  them  they. 

28.  I  did  not  speak  of  either  you  or  she  her. 

29.  Our  cousins  and  we  us  are  going  to  the  Art  Gallery. 

30.  Aunt  Mary  has  asked  our  cousins  and  us[  we  to  take  dinner 
at  her  house. 

31.  They  are  more  eager  than  we  us  since  they  have  not  seen  her 
for  a  long  time. 

32.  It  could  not  have  been  we  us  who  whom  you  suspected. 

33.  We  us  boys  are  going  to  the  ball  game. 

34.  They  sent  letters  to  all  who  whom  they  thought  would  con- 
tribute. 

35.  This  money  was  given  by  John  who  whom  you  know  is  very 
stingy. 


24  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

36.  The  superintendent,  who  whom,  I  cannot  doubt,  is  responsible 
for  this  error,  must  be  discharged. 

37.  The  teacher  told  you  and  /  me  to  stay. 

38.  The  teacher  told  you  and  him  he  to  stay. 

39.  The  teacher  told  you  and  she  her  to  stay. 

40.  There  are  many  miles  between  England  and  we  us. 

41.  They  can't  play  the  game  better  than  we  us. 

42.  It   is   unpleasant   for   such   as   they   them   to   witness  such 
things. 

43.  Between  a  teacher  and  he  him  who  whom  he  teaches  there  is 
sometimes  a  strong  fellowship. 

44.  You  are  nearly  as  strong  as  him  he. 

45.  All  were  present  but  John  and  he  him. 

46.  Father  believed  it  was  she  her. 

47.  Mother  knew  it  to  be  her  she. 

48.  It  was  either  he  him  or  she  her  that  called. 

49.  Because  of  his  him  being  young,  they  tried  to  shield  him. 

50.  It  was  he  him  who  whom  the  manager  said  ought  to  be  pro- 
moted. 

51.  The  throne  was  held  by  a  king  who  whom  historians  believe 
to  have  been  insane. 

52.  Who  whom  did  he  say  the  man  was? 

53.  Who  whom  did  he  say  the  judge  suspected? 

54.  Who  whom  do  you  consider  to  be  the  brightest  man? 

55.  Who  whom  do  you  think  is  the  brightest  man? 

56.  He  cannot  learn  from  such  as  thou  thee. 

57.  If  they  only  rob  such  as  thou  thee,  they  are  honest. 

58.  What  dost  thou  thee  know? 

59.  They  do  tell  thee  thou  the  truth. 

60.  She  told  John  and  me  I  to  study. 

61.  My  father  allowed  my  brother  and  her  she  to  go. 

62.  My  brother  and  she  her  were  allowed  to  go  by  my  father. 

63.  Turn  not  away  from  him  he  that  is  needy. 

64.  Neither  Frances  nor  she  her  was  at  fault. 

65.  The  property  goes  to  they  them. 

66.  He  thought  it  was   her  she,  but  it  was  him  he  and  William 
WQO  did  it. 

6V.  Tt  was  through  she  her  that  word  came  to  me  I. 


PRONOUNS  >  25 

68.  I  thought  it  was  her  she. 

69.  I  wish  you  were  more  like  he  him. 

70.  I  thought  it  to  be  she  her. 

71.  It  seems  to  be  he.     I  should  hate  to  be  he.     I  should  like 
to  be  he  or  she.     (All  these  sentences  are  in  the  correct  form.) 

72.  He  is  a  man  in  whom  who  I  have  little  faith. 

73.  You  are  as  skillful  as  she  her. 

74.  We  escorted  her  mother  and  her  she  to  the  station. 

75.  She  her  and  /  me  are  going  on  the  boat. 

76.  If  any  are  late  it  will  not  be  us  we. 

77.  Who  whom  are  you  going  to  collect  it  from? 

78.  Who  whom  do  men  say  that  he  is? 

79.  Who  whom  do  you  think  him  he  to  be? 

80.  They  them  and  their  children  have  gone  abroad. 

81.  It  was  not  they  them. 

82.  Who  whom  am  I  said  to  be  ? 

83.  I  do  not  know  to  who  whom  to  direct  him. 

84.  How  can  one  tell  who  whom  is  at  home  now? 

85.  Who  whom  is  that  for? 

86.  Choose  who  whom  you  please. 

87.  Do  you  think  /  me  to  be  her  she  who  whom  you  call  Kate? 

88.  Some  who  whom  their  friends  expected  were  kept  away. 

89.  Give  it  to  who  whom  seems  to  want  it  most. 

90.  Who  whom  do  you  think  I  saw  there  ? 

91.  I  hope  it  was  she  her  who  whom  we  saw. 

92.  It  could  not  have  been  him  he. 

93.  Who  whom  did  you  say  did  it? 

94.  Let  them  they  come  at  once. 

95.  The  man  on  who  whom  I  relied  was  absent. 

96.  I  know  it  was  they  them  who  whom  did  it. 

97.  Will  he  let  us  we  go? 

98.  It  came  from  they  themlwho  whom  should  not  have  sent  it, 

99.  It  was  not  us  we  from  who  whom  it  came. 

100.  Can  it  be  she  her? 

101.  Thou  thee  art  mistaken. 

102.  Let  me  tell  thee  thou,  thee  thou  wilt  do  wrong. 

103.  Send  who  whom  wants  the  pass  to  me. 

104.  Tell  who  whom  you  choose  to  come. 


26  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

105.  Is  he  the  man  for  who  whom  the  city  is  named? 

106.  The  book  is  for  who  whom  needs  it. 

107.  I  do  not  know  who  whom  the  book  is  for. 

30.  The  Compound  Personal  Pronouns  are  formed  by 
adding  self  or  selves  to  certain  of  the  objective  and  possessive 
personal  pronouns;  as,  herself,  myself,  itself,  themselves,  etc. 
They  are  used  to  add  emphasis  to  an  expression;  as,  I,  myself, 
did  it,  He,  himself,    said   so.     They  are  also  used  reflexively 
after  verbs  and  prepositions;  as,  He  mentioned  himself,  He 
did  it  for  himself. 

The  compound  personal  pronouns  should  generally  be 
confined  to  their  emphatic  and  reflexive  use.  Do  not  say, 
Myself  and  John  will  come,  but,  John  and  I  will  come.  Do 
not  say,  They  invited  John  and  myself,  but,  They  invited  John 
and  me. 

-»  The  compound  personal  pronouns  have  no  possessive  forms ; 
but  for  the  sake  of  emphasis  own  with  the  ordinary  possessive 
form  is  used;  as,  /  have  my  own  book,  Bring  your  own  work,  He 
has  a  home  of  his  own. 

31.  There   are  no   such  forms   as  hisself,  your'n,  his'n, 
her'n,  their  self,  their  selves,  their' n.     In  place  of  these  use  simply 
his,  her,  their,  or  your. 

Exercise  13 

Write  sentences  illustrating  the  correct  use  of  the  following 
simple  and  compound  personal  pronouns: 

Myself,  me,  I,  them,  themselves,  him,  himself,  her,  herself,  itself, 
our,  ourselves. 

Exercise  14 

Choose  the  correct  form  in  the  following  sentences.  Punctuate 
properly.  (See  §108) : 

1.  Yourself  you  and  John  were  mentioned 

2.  She  told  Mary  and  me  myself  to  go  with  her  herself. 

3.  The  book  is  for  you  yourself  and  /  me  myself. 


PRONOUNS  27 

4.  Henry  and  I  me  myself  are  in  the  same  class. 

5.  He  thinks  you  yourself  and  I  me  myself  should  bring  the 
books. 

6.  Our  friends  and  we  us  ourselves  are  going  out  to-night. 

7.  Herself  she  and  her  husband  have  been  sick. 

8.  They  themselves  and  their  children  have  gone  abroad. 

9.  You  play  the  violin  better  than  he  himself. 

10.  The  machine  failed  to  work  well,  because  it  itself  and  the 
engine  were  not  properly  adjusted  to  each  other. 

11.  Let  them  do  it  their  selves  themselves. 

12.  He  came  by  hisself  himself. 

13.  The  teacher  hisself  himself  could  not  have  done  better. 

14.  I'll  bring  my  gun,  and  you  bring  your'n  yours  your  own. 

15.  That  book  is  his'n  his. 

Exercise  15 

Fill  the  blanks  in  the  following  sentences  with  the  proper  em- 
phatic or  reflexive  forms.     Punctuate  properly.     (See  §108): 

1.  He said  so. 

2.  I will  do  it. 

3.  We will  look  after  her. 

4.  That,  I  tell  you,  is book. 

5.  It  belongs  to  me . 


6.  Those  books  are  my . 

7.  Let  them pay  for  it. 

8.  The  horse  is  to  be  for use. 

9.  The  horse  is  to  be  for  the  use  of . 

10.  He  said  it  to . 

11.  He  deceived . 

12.  I  do  not  wish to  be  prominent. 

32.  The  Compound  Relative  Pronouns  are  formed  bj 
adding  ever,  so,  or  soever  to  the  relative  pronouns,  who,  which^ 
and  what;  as,  whoever,  whatever,  whomever,  whosoever,  whoso^ 
whosoever,  etc.  It  will  be  noted  that  whoever,  whosoever,  and 
whoso  have  objective  forms,  whomever,  whomsoever,  and 
whomso;  and  possessive  forms,  whosoever,  whosesoever,  and 


28  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

whoseso.  These  forms  must  be  used  whenever  the  objective 
or  possessive  case  is  demanded.  Thus,  one  should  say,  /  will 
give  it  to  whomever  I  find  there.  (See  §29  and  Note  3.) 

Exercise  16 

Fill  the  following  blanks  with  the  proper  forms  of  the  com" 
pound  relatives  : 

1.  We  will  refer  the  question  to you  may  name. 

2.    it  may  have  been,  it  was  not  he. 

3.  I  shall  receive  presents  from  • -  I  wish. 

4.  It  was  between  him  and was  with  him. 

5. they  may  choose,  I  will  not  vote  for  him. 

6.  Let  them  name they  think  will  win. 

7.  Give  it  to you  think  needs  it  most. 

8.  He  may  take he  cares  to. 

9.  He  will  take property  he  finds  there. 

10.  He  promised  to  ask  the  question  of he  found  there. 

11.    can  have  done  it? 

12.     else  may  be  said,  that  is  not  true. 

13.  There  are  the  two  chairs;  you  may  take you  like. 

14.    you  take  will  suit  me. 

15.  You  may  have you  wish. 

16.     is  nominated,  will  you  vote  for  him? 

17.    they  nominate,  I  will  vote  for  him. 

18.  — —  does  that  is  a  partizan. 

19.    candidate  is  elected,  I  will  be  satisfied. 

20.  He  may  name he  thinks  best. 

21.  he  says  is  worthy  of  attention. 

22.  she  takes  after,  she  is  honest. 

23.  follows  him  will  be  sorry. 

24.  he  may  be,  he  is  no  gentleman. 

25.  they  do  is  praised. 

33.     There  are  certain  words,  called  Adjective  Pronouns, 

which  are  regarded  as  pronouns,  because,  although  they  are 
properly  adjective  in  their  meaning,  the  nouns  which  they 
modify  are  never  expressed;  as,  One  (there  is  a  possessive  form, 


PRONOUNS  29 

one's,  and  a  plural  form,  ones),  none,  this,  that,  these,  those, 
other,  former,  some,  few,  many,  etc. 

34.     Some  miscellaneous  cautions  in  the  use  of  pronouns : 

1.  The  pronoun  /  should  always  be  capitalized,  and  should,  when 
used  as  part  of  a  compound  subject,  be  placed  second;  as,  James  and  I 
were  present,  not  /  and  James  were  present. 

2.  Do  not  use  the  common  and  grave  forms  of  the  personal  pro- 
nouns in  the  same  sentence ;  as,  Thou  wilt  do  this  whether  you  wish  or  not. 

3.  Avoid  the  use  of  personal  pronouns  where  they  are  unnecessary; 
as,  John,  he  did  it,  or  Mary,  she  said.     This  is  a  frequent  error  in 
speech. 

4.  Let  the  antecedent  of  each  pronoun  be  clearly  apparent.     Note 
the  uncertainty  in  the  following  sentence;  He  sent  a  box  of  cheese,  and 
it  was  made  of  wood.     The  antecedent  of  it  is  not  clear.     Again,  A 
man  told  his  son  to  take  his  coat  home.     The  antecedent  of  his  is  very 
uncertain.     Such  errors  are  frequent. 

In  relative  clauses  this  error  may  sometimes  be  avoided  by  placing 
the  relative  clause  as  near  as  possible  to  the  noun  it  limits.  Note  the 
following  sentence :  A  cat  was  found  in  the  yard  which  wore  a  blue  ribbon. 
The  grammatical  inference  would  be  that  the  yard  wore  the  blue  ribbon. 
The  sentence  might  be  changed  to,  A  cat,  which  wore  a  blue  ribbon,  was 
found  in  the  yard. 

5.  Relative  clauses  referring  to  the  same  thing  require  the  same 
relative  pronoun  to  introduce  them;  as,  The  book  that  we  found  and  the 
book  that  he  lost  are  the  same. 

6.  Use  but  that  when  but  is  a  conjunction  and  that  introduces  a 
noun  clause;  as,  There  is  no  doubt  but  that  he  will  go.     Use  but  what 
when  but  is  a  preposition  in  the  sense  of  except;  as,  He  has  no  money 
but  (except)  what  I  gave  him. 

7.  Them  is  a  pronoun  and  should  never  be  used  as  an  adjective. 
Those  is  the  adjective  which  should  be  used  in  its  place;  as,  Those 
people,  not,  Them  people. 

8.  Avoid  using  you  and  they  indefinitely;  as,  You  seldom  hear  of 
such  things,  They  make  chairs  there.     Instead,  say,  One  seldom  hears  of 
such  things,  Chairs  are  made  there. 

9.  Which  should  not  be  used  with  a  clause  or  phrase  as  its  an- 
tecedent.    Both  the  following  sentences  are  wrong:  He  sent  me  to  see 


30  PRACTICAL   GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

John,  which  I  did.     Their  whispering  became  very  loud,  which  annoyed 
the  preacher. 

10.     Never  use  an  apostrophe  with  the  possessive  pronouns,  its, 
yours,  theirs,  ours  and  hers. 

Exercise  17 

Correct  the  following  sentences  so  that  they  do  not  violate 
the  cautions  above  stated  : 

1.  How  can  you  say  that  when  thou  knowest  better? 

2.  May  I  and  Mary  go  to  the  concert? 

3.  He  asked  me  to  write  to  him,  which  I  did. 

4.  Grant  thou  to  us  your  blessing. 

5.  The  train  it  was  twenty  minutes  late. 

6.  Mother  she  said  I  might  go. 

7.  Mary  told  her  mother  she  was  mistaken. 

8.  The  man  cannot  leave  his  friend,  for  if  he  should  leave  him 
he  would  be  angry. 

9.  Sarah  asked  her  aunt  how  old  she  was. 

10.  That  is  the  man  whom  we  named  and  that  did  it. 

11.  Mr.  Jones  went  to  Mr.  Smith  and  told  him  that  his  dog  was 
lost. 

12.  This  is  the  book  that  we  found  and  which  he  lost. 

13.  She  told  her  sister  that  if  she  could  not  get  to  the  city,  she 
thought  she  had  better  go  home. 

14.  Jack  cannot  see  Henry  because  he  is  so  short. 

15.  Then  Jack  and  George,  they  went  home. 

16.  Bring  them  books  here. 

17.  Them  are  all  wrong. 

18.  There  are  no  men  in  the  room  but  that  can  be  bought. 

19.  I  have  no  doubt  but  what  it  was  done. 

20.  Them  there  should  be  corrected. 

21.  I  have  faith  in  everything  but  that  he  says. 

22.  I  have  no  fears  but  what  it  can  be  done. 

23.  Napoleon,  he  threw  his  armies  across  the  Rhine. 

24.  Thou  knowest  not  what  you  are  doing. 

25.  It   was  thought   advisable   to   exile   Napoleon,  which   was 
done. 


PRONOUNS  31 

26.  A  grapevine  had  grown  along  the  fence  which  was  full  of 
grapes. 

27.  Keep  them  people  out  of  here. 

28.  The  two  cars  contained  horses  that  were  painted  yellow. 

29.  She  is  a  girl  who  is  always  smiling  and  that  all  like. 

30.  You  never  can  tell  about  foreigners. 

31.  They  say  that  is  not  true. 

32.  The  cabin  needed  to  be  swept,  which  we  did. 

33.  They  use  those  methods  in  some  schools. 

34.  It  is  the  house  that  is  on  the  corner  and  which  is  painted 
white. 

35.  You  can  easily  learn  history  if  you  have  a  good  memory. 

36.  How  can  you  tell  but  what  it  will  rain? 

37.  He  does  everything  but  what  he  should  do. 

38.  He  has  everything  but  that  he  needs. 

39.  It  was  a  collie  dog  which  we  had  and  that  was  stolen. 

40.  Aunt,  she  said  that  she  didn't  know  but  what  she  would  go. 

41.  Tell  I  and  John  about  it. 

42.  He  went  to  his  father  and  told  him  he  had  sinned. 

43.  Dost  thou  know  what  you  doest  ? 

44.  It's  appearance  was  deceitful. 

45.  The  chair  was  also  their's. 

46.  There  is  a  slight  difference  between  mine  and  your's. 

47.  Which  of  the  two  is  her's? 

48.  They  are  both  our's. 


CHAPTER  IV 
ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS 

35.  An  Adjective  is  a  word  used  to  modify  a  noun  or  a 
pronoun.     An  Adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  a  verb,  an  ad- 
jective, or  another  adverb.     Adjectives  and  adverbs  are  very 
closely  related  in  both  their  forms  and  their  tise. 

36.  Comparison.    The  variation  of  adjectives  and  adverbs 
to  indicate  the  degree  of  modification  they  express  is  called 
Comparison.     There  are  three  degrees  of  comparison. 

The  Positive  Degree  indicates  the  mere  possession  of  a 
quality;  as,  true,  good,  sweet,  fast,  lovely. 

The  Comparative  Degree  indicates  a  stronger  degree  of 
the  quality  than  the  positive;  as,  truer,  sweeter,  better,  faster, 
lovelier. 

The  Superlative  Degree  indicates  the  highest  degree  of 
quality;  as,  truest,  sweetest,  best,  fastest,  loveliest. 

Where  the  adjectives  and  adverbs  are  compared, by  in- 
flection they  are  said  to  be  compared  regularly.  In  regular 
comparison  the  comparative  is  formed  by  adding  er,  and  the 
superlative  by  adding  est.  If  the  word  ends  in  y,  the  y  is 
changed  to  i  before  adding  the  ending;  as,  pretty,  prettier, 
prettiest. 

Where  the  adjectives  and  adverbs  have  two  or  more 
syllables,  most  of  them  are  compared  by  the  use  of  the  ad- 
verbs more  and  most,  or,  if  the  comparison  be  a  descending  one, 
by  the  use  of  less  and  least;  as,  beautiful,  more  beautiful,  most 
beautiful,  and  less  beautiful,  least  beautiful. 

37.  Some    adjectives     and    adverbs    are   compared    by 
changing  to  entirely  different  words  in  the  comparative  and 
superlative.     Note  the  following: 

32 


ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS  33 

POSITIVE  COMPARATIVE  SUPERLATIVE 

bad,  ill,  evil,  badly  worse  worst 

far  farther,  further  farthest,  furthest 

forth  further  furthest 

fore  former  foremost,  first 

good,  well  better  best 

hind  hinder  hindmost 

late  later,  latter  latest,  last 

little  less  least 

much,  many  more  most 

old  older,  elder  oldest,  eldest 

NOTE. — Badly  and  forth  may  be  used  only  as  adverbs.  Well  is 
usually  an  adverb;  as,  He  talks  well,  but  may  be  used  as  an  adjective ;  as, 
He  seems  well. 

38.  Confusion  of  Adjectives  and  Adverbs.     An  adjective 
is  often  used  where  an  adverb  is  required,  and  vice  versa. 
The  sentence,  She  talks  foolish,  is  wrong,  because  here  the 
word  to  be  modified  is  talks,  and  since  talks  is  a  verb,  the 
adverb  foolishly  should  be  used.     The  sentence,  She  looks 
charmingly,  means,  as  it  stands,  that  her  manner  of  looking 
at  a  thing  is  charming.     What  is  intended  to  be  said  is  that 
she  appears  as  if  she  was  a  charming  woman.      To  convey 
that   meaning,    the   adjective,    charming,    should  have  been 
used,  and   the   sentence   should    read,    She  looks   charming. 
Wherever  the  word  modifies  a  verb  or  an  adjective  or  another 
adverb,  an  adverb  should  be  used,  and  wherever  the  word, 
whatever  its  location  in  the  sentence,  modifies   a  noun  or 
pronoun,  an  adjective  should  be  used. 

39.  The  adjective  and  the  adverb  are  sometimes  alike 
in  form.     Thus,   both   the  following  sentences   are  correct: 
He  works  hard  (adverb),  and  His  work  is  hard  (adjective). 
But,  usually,  where  the  adjective  and  the  adverb  correspond 
at  all,  the  adverb    has    the    additional    ending    ly;  as,   The 
track  is  smooth,  (adjective), and  The  train  runs  smooth//,  (ad- 
verb) . 


34  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 


Exercise  18 

In  the  following  sentences  choose  from  the  italicized  words 
the  proper  word  to  be  used  : 

1.  The  sunset  looks  beautiful  beautifully. 

2.  The  man  acted  strange  strangely. 

3.  Write  careful  carefully  and  speak  distinct  distinctly. 

4.  Speak  slow  slovdy. 

5.  He  acted  bad  badly. 

6.  He  behaved  very  proper  properly. 

7.  The  boat  runs  smooth  smoothly. 

8.  He  is  a  remarkable  remarkably  poor  writer. 

9.  I  am  in  extremely  extreme  good  health. 

10.  The  typewriter  works  good  well. 

11.  The  bird  warbles  sweet  sweetly. 

12.  He  was  terrible  terribly  angry. 

13.  He  was  in  a  terrible  terribly  dangerous  place. 

14.  He  talks  plainer  more  plainly  than  he  ever  did  before. 

15.  The  dead  Roman  looked  fierce  fiercely. 

16.  The  fire  burns  brilliant  brilliantly. 

17.  You  are  exceeding  exceedingly  generous. 

18.  He  struggled  manful  manfully  against  the  opposition,, 

19.  My  health  is  poor  poorly. 

20.  He  is  sure  surely  a  fine  fellow. 

21.  Have  everything  suitable  suitably  decorated. 

22.  That  can  be  done  easy  easily. 

23.  I  can  speak  easier  more  easily  than  I  can  write. 

24.  The  music  of  the  orchestra  was  decided  decidedly  poor. 

25.  She  is  a  remarkable  remarkably  beautiful  girl. 

26.  The  wind  roared  awful  awfully. 

27.  The  roar  of  the  wind  was  awful  awfully. 

28.  I  have  studied  grammar  previous  previously  to  this  year. 

29.  I  didn't  study  because  I  felt  too  bad  badly  to  read. 

30.  The  roses  smell  sweetly  sweet. 

31.  They  felt  very  bad  badly  at  being  beaten. 

32.  That  violin  sounds  different  differently  from  this  one. 

33.  The  soldiers  fought  gallant  gallantly. 


ADJECTIVES  AND   ADVERBS  35 

34.  She  looks  sweet  sweetly  in  that  dress. 

35.  I  can  wear  this  coat  easy  easily. 

36.  Speak  gentle  gently  to  him. 

37.  He  talks  warm  warmly  on  that  subject. 

38.  He  works  well  good  and  steady  steadily. 

39.  He  stood  thoughtful  thoughtfully  for  a  moment  and  then  went 
quiet  quietly  to  his  tent. 

40.  He  walked  down  the  street  slow  slowly,  but  all  the  time  looked 
eager  eagerly  about  him. 

41.  The  music  sounds  loud  loudly. 

42.  That  coin  rings  true  truly. 

43.  He  looked  angry  angrily  at  his  class. 

44.  He  moved  silent  silently  about  in  the  crowd. 

45.  His  coat  fits  nice  nicely. 

46.  That  is  easy  easily  to  do. 

47.  He  went  over  the  work  very  thorough  thoroughly. 


Exercise  19 

The  adjectives  and  adverbs  in  the  following  sentences  are 
correctly  used.     In  every  case  show  what  they  modify: 

1.  The  water  lay  smooth  in  the  lake. 

2.  She  looked  cold. 

3.  The  train  runs  smoothly  now. 

4.  The  sun  shone  bright  at  the  horizon. 

5.  The  sun  shone  brightly  all  day. 

6.  She  looks  coldly  about  her. 

7.  Be  careful  in  your  study  of  these  sentences. 

8.  Study  these  sentences  carefully. 

9.  We  found  the  way  easy. 

10.  We  found  the  way  easily. 

11.  He  looked  good. 

12.  He  looked  well. 

13.  We  arrived  safe. 

14.  We  arrived  safely. 

15.  Speak  gently. 

16.  Let  your  speech  be  gentle. 


36  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

Exercise  20 

Write  sentences  containing  the  following  words  correctly  used : 

Thoughtful,  thoughtfully,  masterful,  masterfully,  hard,  hardly, 
cool,  coolly,  rapid,  rapidly,  ungainly,  careful,  carefully,  eager,  eagerly, 
sweet,  sweetly,  gracious,  graciously. 

40.  Improper  Forms  of  Adjectives.     The  wrong  forms  in 
the  following  list  of  adjectives  are  frequently  used  in  place  of 
the  right  forms: 

RIGHT  WRONG 

everywhere  everywheres 

not  nearly  nowhere  near 

not  at  all  not  much  or  not  muchly 

ill  illy 

first  firstly 

thus  thusly 

much  muchly 

unknown  unbeknown 

complexioned  complected 

Exercise  21 

Correct  the  errors  in  the  following  sentences  : 

1.  She  goes  everywheres. 

2.  Hers  is  the  most  illy  behaved  child  I  know. 

3.  Not  muchly  will  I  go. 

4.  Use  the  lesser  quantity  first. 

5.  He  is  nowhere  near  so  bright  as  John. 

6.  You  do  the  problem  thusly. 

7.  The  causes  are  firstly,  ignorance,  and  second,  lack  of  energy- 

8.  They  came  unbeknown  to  me. 

9.  He  is  a  dark  complected  man. 

10.  It  all  happened  unbeknownst  to  them. 

11 .  His  vote  was  nowhere  near  so  large  as  usual. 

41.  Errors  in  comparison  are  frequently  made.     Observe 
carefully  the  following  rules: 


ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS  37 

1.  The  superlative  should  not  be  used  in  comparing  only 
two  things.     One  should  say,  He  is  the  larger  of  the  two,  not 
He  is  the  largest  of  the  two.     But,  He  is  the  largest  of  the  three, 
is  right. 

2.  A  comparison  should  not  be  attempted  by  adjectives 
that    express    absolute   quality — adjectives   that    cannot    be 
compared;  as,  round,  perfect,  equally,  universal.     A  thing  may 
be  round  or  perfect,  but  it  cannot  be  more  round  or  most  round, 
more  perfect  or  most  perfect. 

3.  When  two  objects  are  used  in  the  comparative,  one 
must  not  be  included  in  the  other;  but,  when  two  objects  are 
used  in  the  superlative,  one  must  be  included  in  the  other. 
It  is  wrong  to  say,  The  discovery  of  America  was  more  impor- 
tant than  any  geographical  discovery,  for  that  is  saying  that 
the  discovery  of  America  was  more  important  than  itself — an 
absurdity.     But  it  would  be  right  to  say,   The  discovery  of 
America  was  more  important  than  any  other  geographical  dis- 
covery.   One  should  not  say,  He  is  the  most  honest  of  his  fellow- 
workmen,  for  he  is  not  one  of  his  fellow- workmen.     One  should 
say,  He  is  more  honest  than  any  of  his  fellow-workmen,  or,  He 
is  the  most  honest  of  all  the  workmen.     To  say,  This  machine  is 
better  than  any  machine,  is  incorrect,  but  to  say,  This  machine 
is  better  than  any  other  machine,  is  correct.  To  say,  This  machine 
is  the  best  of  any  machine  (or  any  other  machine),  is  wrong, 
because  all  machines  are  meant,  not  one  machine  or  some 
machines.     To  say,  This  machine  is  the  best  of  machines  (or 
the  best  of  all  machines) ,  is  correct. 

Note  the  following  rules  in  regard  to  the  use  of  other  in 
comparisons: 

a.  After  comparatives  followed  by  than  the  words  any 
and  all  should  be  followed  by  other. 

b.  After  superlatives  followed  by  of,  any  and  other  should 
not  be  used. 

4.  Avoid  mixed  comparisons.      John  is  as  good,  if  not 
better  than  she.     If  the  clause,  if  not  better,  were  left  out,  this 

4 


38  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION 

sentence  would  read,  John  is  as  good  than  she.  It  could  be 
corrected  to  read,  John  is  as  good  as,  if  not  better  than  she. 
Similarly,  it  is  wrong  to  say,  He  is  one  of  the  greatest,  if  not 
the  greatest,  man  in  history. 

Exercise  22 

Choose  the  correct  word  from  those  italicized: 

1.  The  older  oldest  of  the  three  boys  was  sick. 

2.  Of  Smith  and  Jones,  Smith  is  the  wealthiest  wealthier. 

3.  Of  two  burdens  choose  the  less  least. 

4.  Which  can  run  the  fastest  faster,  John  or  Henry? 

5.  Of  the  two  men,  Smith  and  Jones,  the  first  former  is  the  better 
best  known. 

6.  Which  is  the  larger  largest  of  the  two? 

7.  Which  is  the  best  better  of  the  six? 

8.  Which  is  the  larger  largest  number,  six  or  seven? 

9.  Which  is  the  more  most  desirable,  health  or  wealth? 

10.  My  mother  is  the  oldest  older  of  four  sisters. 

11.  The  prettier  prettiest  of  the  twins  is  the  brighter  brightest. 

12.  This  is  the  duller  dullest  season  of  the  year. 

13.  The  other  is  the  worse  worst  behaved  of  the  two. 

14.  Which  was  the  hotter  hottest,  yesterday  or  to-day? 

15.  That  is  the  cleaner  cleanest  of  the  three  streets. 

) 
Exercise  23 

Correct  any  of  the  following  sentences  that  may  be  wrong. 
Give  a  valid  reason  for  each  correction: 

1.  He  was  the  most  active  of  all  his  friends. 

2.  He  is  the  brightest  of  all  his  brothers. 

3.  Of  all  the  other  American  Colleges,  this  is  the  largest. 

4.  Philadelphia  is  larger  than  any  city  in  Pennsylvania. 

5.  Philadelphia  is  the  largest  of  all  other  cities  in  Pennsylvania, 

6.  No  city  in  Pennsylvania  is  so  large  as  Philadelphia. 

7.  That  theory  is  more  universally  adopted. 

8.  He  was,  of  all  others,  the  most  clever. 

9.  This  apple  is  more  perfect  than  that. 


ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS  39 

10.  No  fruit  is  so  good  as  the  orange. 

11.  The  orange  is  better  than  any  fruit. 

12.  Of  all  other  fruits  the  orange  is  the  best. 

13.  The  orange  is  the  best  of  all  the  fruits. 

14.  The  orange  is  better  than  any  other  fruit. 

15.  That  is  the  most  principal  thing  in  the  lesson. 

16.  Which  has  been  of  most  importance,  steam  or  electricity? 

17.  He  was  more  active  than  any  other  of  his  companions. 

18.  This  apple  is  rounder  than  that. 

19.  This  apple  is  more  nearly  round  than  that. 

20.  Paris  is  the  most  famous  of  any  other  European  city. 

21.  Pennsylvania  is  the  wealthiest  of  her  sister  states. 

22.  No  state  is  so  wealthy  as  Pennsylvania. 

23.  Pennsylvania  is  the  wealthiest  of  any  of  the  States. 

24.  Pennsylvania  is  wealthier  than  any  of  her  other  sister  states. 

25.  New  York  is  one  of  the  largest,  if  not  the  largest  city  in  the 
world. 

26.  That  book  is  as  good  if  not  better  than  mine. 

27.  John  is  taller  than  any  other  boy  in  his  classes. 

28.  John  is  taller  than  any  boy  in  his  class. 

29.  Iron  is  the  most  useful  of  all  other  metals. 

30.  Iron  is  the  more  useful  of  the  metals. 

31.  Iron  is  the  most  useful  of  the  metals. 

32.  Of  iron  and  lead,  lead  is  the  heaviest. 

33.  Iron  is  among  the  most  useful,  if  not  the  most  useful  metal. 

34.  He  is  among  the  oldest  if  not  the  oldest  of  the  men  in  the 
Senate. 

35.  That  picture  is  more  beautiful  than  all  the  pictures. 

4:2.  Singular  and  Plural  Adjectives.  Some  adjectives  can 
be  used  only  with  singular  nouns  and  some  only  with  plural 
nouns.  Such  adjectives  as  one,  each,  every,  etc.,  can  be  used 
only  with  singular  nouns.  Such  adjectives  as  several,  various, 
many,  sundry,  two,  etc.,  can  be  used  only  with  plural  nouns. 
In  many  cases,  the  noun  which  the  adjective  modifies  is 
omitted,  and  the  adjective  thus  acquires  the  force  of  a 
noun;  as,  Few  are  seen,  Several  have  come. 


40  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

The  adjective  pronouns  this  and  that  have  plural  forms, 
these  and  those.  The  plurals- must  be  used  with  plural  nouns. 
To  say  those  kind  is  then  incorrect.  •  It  should  be  those  kinds. 
Those  sort  of  men  should  be  that  sort  of  men  or  those  sorts  of  men. 

43.  Either  and  neither  are  used  to  designate  one  of  two 
objects  only.     If  more  than  two  are  referred  to,  use  any,  none, 
any  one,  no  one.     Note'  the  following  correct  sentences: 

Neither  John  nor  Henry  may  go. 
Any  one  of  the  three  boys  may  go. 

44.  Each  other  should  be  used  when  referring  to  two; 
one  another  when  referring  to  more  than  two.     Note  the 
following  correct  sentences: 

The  two  brothers  love  each  other. 
The  four  brothers  love  one  another. 

Exercise  24 

Correct  such  of  the  following  sentences  as  are  incorrect.  Be 
able  to  give  reasons : 

1.  He  is  six  foot  tall. 

2.  I  like  those  kind  of  fruit. 

3.  He  lost  several  pound. 

4.  I  have  not  seen  him  this  twenty  year. 

5.  Have  you  heard  these  news  ? 

6.  Are  they  those  kind  of  people? 

7.  He  rode  ten  mile. 

8.  There  were  fifteen  car-load  of  people. 

9.  These  kind  of  books  are  interesting. 

10.  Several  phenomenon  marked  his  character. 

11.  There  are  a  few  crisis  in  every  man's  career. 

12.  Each  strata  of  the  rock  lies  at  an  angle. 

13.  The  poem  has  six  verse  in  it. 

14.  Either  of  the  five  will  do. 

15.  Little  children  should  love  each  other. 

16.  Neither  of  the  large  cities  in  the  United  States  is  so  large  as 
London. 

17.  You  will  be  able  to  find  it  in  either  one  of  those  three  books. 


ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS  41 

18.  Those  two  brothers  treat  one  another  very  coldly. 

19.  Neither  of  the  many  newspapers  published  an  account  of  it. 

20.  Either  law  or  medicine  is  his  profession. 

21.  Some  ten  box  of  shoes  were  on  the  train. 

22.  Those  two  statements  contradict  one  another. 

23.  The  Sahara  Desert  has  several  oasis. 

24.  How  can  he  associate  with  those  sort  of  men? 

45.  Placing  of  Adverbs  and  Adjectives.  In  the  placing  of 
adjective  elements  and  adverbial  elements  in  the  sentence,  one 
should  so  arrange  them  as  to  leave  no  doubt  as  to  what  they 
are  intended  to  modify. 

Wrong:  A  man  was  riding  on  a  horse  wearing  gray  trousers. 

Right:  A  man  wearing  gray  trousers  was  riding  on  a  horse. 

The  adverb  only  requires  especial  attention.  Generally 
only  should  come  before  the  word  it  is  intended  to  modify. 
Compare  the  following  correct  sentences,  and  note  the  differ- 
ences in  meaning. 

Only  he  found  the  book. 

He  only  found  the  book. 

He  found  only  the  book. 

He  found  the  book  only. 

The  placing  of  the  words,  almost,  ever,  hardly,  scarcely, 
merely,  and  quite,  also  requires  care  and  thought. 

Exercise  25 

Correct  the  errors  in  the  location  of  adjectives  and  adverbs 
in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  I  only  paid  five  dollars. 

2.  I  have  only  done  six  problems. 

3.  The  clothing  business  is  only  profitable  in  large  towns. 

4.  The  school  is  only  open  in  the  evening. 

5.  I  only  need  ten  minutes  in  which  to  do  it. 

6.  He  had  almost  climbed  to  the  top  when  the  ladder  broke. 

7.  I  never  expect  to  see  the  like  again. 

8.  A  black  base-ball  player's  suit  was  found. 


42  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION 

9.  Do  you  ever  remember  to  have  seen  the  man  before? 

10.  The  building  was  trimmed  with  granite  carved  corners. 

11.  People  ceased  to  wonder  gradually. 

12.  The  captain  only  escaped  by  hiding  in  a  ditch. 

13.  I  never  wish  to  think  of  it  again. 

14.  On  the  trip  in  that  direction  he  almost  went  to  Philadelphia. 

15.  Acetylene  lamps  are  only  used  now  in  the  country. 

16.  He  only  spoke  of  history,  not  of  art. 

17.  I  know  hardly  what  to  say. 

18.  I  was  merely  talking  of  grammar,  not  of  English  literature. 

19.  The  girls  were  nearly  dressed  in  the  same  color. 

20.  He  merely  wanted  to  see  you. 

46.  Double  Negatives.  I  am  here  is  called  an  affirmative 
statement.  A  denial  of  that,  /  am  not  here,  is  called  a  negative 
statement.  The  words,  not,  neither,  never,  none,  nothing,  etc., 
are  all  negative  words;  that  is,  they  serve  to  make  denials  of 
statements. 

Two  negatives  should  never  be  used  in  the  same  sentence, 
since  the  effect  is  then  to  deny  the  negative  you  wish  to  assert, 
and  an  affirmative  is  made  where  a  negative  is  intended.  We 
haven't  no  books,  means  that  we  have  some  books.  The  proper 
negative  form  would  be,  We  have  no  books,  or  We  haven't  any 
books.  The  mistake  occurs  usually  where  such  forms  as  isn't, 
don't,  haven't,  etc.,  are  used.  Examine  the  following  sentences : 

Wrong:  It  isn't  no  use. 

Wrong:  There  don't  none  of  them  believe  it. 

Wrong:  We  didn't  do  nothing. 

Hardly,  scarcely,  only,  and  but  (in  the  sense  of  only)  are 
often  incorrectly  used  with  a  negative.  Compare  the  following 
right  and  wrong  forms: 

Wrong:  It  was  so  dark  that  we  couldn't  hardly  see. 
Right :  It  was  so  dark  that  we  could  hardly  see. 

Wrong:  There  wasn't  only  one  person  present. 
Right :  There  was  only  one  person  present. 


ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS  43 

Exercise  26 

Correct  the  following  sentences: 

1.  I  can't  find  it  nowhere. 

2.  For  a  time  I  couldn't  scarcely  tell  where  I  was. 

3.  They  are  not  allowed  to  go  only  on  holidays. 

4.  There  isn't  but  one  person  that  can  make  the  speech. 

5.  They  didn't  find  no  treasure. 

6.  It  won't  take  but  a  few  minutes  to  read  it  all. 

7.  I  haven't  seen  but  two  men  there. 

8.  There  isn't  no  one  here  who  knows  it. 

9.  I  didn't  see  no  fire ;  my  opinion  is  that  there  wasn't  no  fire. 

10.  I  can't  hardly  prove  that  statement. 

11.  I  didn't  feel  hardly  able  to  go. 

12.  She  couldn't  stay  only  a  week. 

13.  I  hadn't  scarcely  reached  shelter  when  the  storm  began. 

14.  You  wouldn't  scarcely  believe  that  it  could  be  done. 

15.  He  said  that  he  wouldn't  bring  only  his  wife. 

16.  There  isn't  nothing  in  the  story. 

17.  He  doesn't  do  nothing. 

18.  I  can't  think  of  nothing  but  that. 

19.  He  can't  hardly  mean  that. 

20.  He  isn't  nowhere  near  so  bright  as  I. 

21.  He  can't  hardly  come  to-night. 

22.  It  is  better  to  not  think  nothing  about  it. 

23.  She  can't  only  do  that. 

24.  There  isn't  no  use  of  his  objecting  to  it. 

25.  There  shan't  none  of  them  go  along  with  us. 

26.  Don't  never  do  that  again. 

27.  We  could  not  find  but  three  specimens  of  the  plant. 

28.  He  wasn't  scarcely  able  to  walk. 

29.  He  hasn't  none  of  his  work  prepared. 

47.  The  Articles.  A,  an,  and  the,  are  called  Articles. 
A  and  an  are  called  the  Indefinite  Articles,  because  they  are 
used  to  limit  the  noun  to  any  one  thing  of  a  class;  as,  a  book, 
a  chair.  But  a  or  an  is  not  used  to  denote  the  whole  of  that 


44  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

class;  as,  Silence  is  golden,  or,  He  was  elected  to  the  office  of 
President. 

The  is  called  the  Definite  Article  because  it  picks  out  some 
one  definite  individual  from  a  class. 

In  the  sentence,  On  the  street  are  a  brick  and  a  stone  house, 
the  article  is  repeated  before  each  adjective;  the  effect  of 
this  repetition  is  to  make  the  sentence  mean  two  houses. 
But,  in  the  sentence,  On  the  street  is  a  brick  and  stone  house, 
since  the  article  is  used  only  before  the  first  of  the  two  ad- 
jectives, the  sentence  means  that  there  is  only  one  house  and 
that  it  is  constructed  of  brick  and  stone. 

Where  two  nouns  refer  to  the  same  object,  the  article 
need  appear  only  before  the  first  of  the  two ;  as,  God,  the  author 
and  creator  of  the  universe.  But  where  the  nouns  refer  to  two 
different  objects,  regarded  as  distinct  from  each  other,  the  arti- 
cle should  appear  before  each;  as,  He  bought  a  horse  and  a  cow. 

A  is  used  before  all  words  except  those  beginning  with 
a  vowel  sound.  Before  those  beginning  with  a  vowel  sound 
an  is  used.  If,  in  a  succession  of  words,  one  of  these  forms 
could  not  be  used  before  all  of  the  words,  then  the  article 
must  be  repeated  before  each.  Thus,  one  should  say,  An  ax, 
a  saw,  and  an  adze  (not  An  ax,  saw  and  adze) ,  made  up  his 
outfit.  Generally  it  is  better  to  repeat  the  article  in  each  case, 
whether  or  not  it  be  the  same. 

Do  not  say,  kind  of  a  house.  Since  a  house  is  singular,  it 
can  have  but  one  kind.  Say  instead,  a  kind  of  house,  a  sort 
of  man,  etc. 

Exercise  27 

Correct  the  following  where  you  think  correction  is  needed : 

1.  Where  did  you  get  that  kind  of  a  notion? 

2.  She  is  an  eager  and  an  ambitious  girl. 

3.  He  received  the  degree  of  a  Master  of  Arts. 

4.  The  boy  and  girl  came  yesterday. 

5.  Neither  the  man  nor  woman  was  here. 

6.  He  was  accompanied  by  a  large  and  small  man. 


ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS  45 

7.  He  planted  an  oak,  maple  and  ash. 

8.  The  third  of  the  team  were  hurt. 

9.  The  noun  and  verb  will  be  discussed  later. 

10.  I  read  a  Pittsburg  and  Philadelphia  paper. 

11.  Read  the  third  and  sixth  sentence. 

12.  Read  the  comments  in  a  monthly  and  weekly  periodical. 

13.  He  is  dying  from  the  typhoid  fever. 

14.  He  was  elected  the  secretary  and  the  treasurer  of  the  associ- 
ation. 

15.  What  sort  of  a  student  are  you? 

16.  He  is  a  funny  kind  of  a  fellow. 

17.  Bring  me  a  new  and  old  chair. 

18.  That  is  a  sort  of  a  peculiar  idea. 

19.  He  was  operated  upon  for  the  appendicitis. 

20.  Lock  the  cat  and  dog  up. 

48.  No  adverb  necessary  to  the  sense  should  be  omitted 
from  the  sentence.  Such  improper  omission  is  frequently 
made  when  very  or  too  are  used  with  past  participles  that 
are  not  also  recognized  as  adjectives;  as/ 

Poor :  I  am  very  insulted.  He  was  too  wrapped  in  thought  to 
notice  the  mistake. 

Right:  I.  am  very  much  insulted.  He  was  too  much,  wrapped  in 
thought  to  notice  the  mistake. 

Exercise  28 

Write  sentences  containing  the  following  adjectives  and  ad- 
verbs. Be  sure  that  they  are  used  correctly. 

Both,  each,  every,  only,  evidently,  hard,  latest,  awful,  terribly, 
charming,  charmingly,  lovely,  brave,  perfect,  straight,  extreme,  very, 
either,  neither,  larger,  oldest,  one,  none,  hardly,  scarcely,  only,  but, 
finally,  almost,  ever,  never,  new,  newly,  very. 


CHAPTER  V 
VERBS 

49.  A  Verb  has  already  been  defined  as  a  word  stating 
something  about  the  subject.     Verbs  are  inflected  or  changed 
to  indicate  the  time  of  the  action  as  past,  present,  or  future; 
as,  /  talk,  I  talked,  I  shall  talk,  etc.     Verbs  also  vary  to  in- 
dicate completed  or  incompleted  action;  as,  /  have  talked, 
I  shall  have  talked,  etc.      To  these  variations,  which  indicate 
the  time  of  the  action,  the  name  Tense  is  given. 

The  full  verbal  statement  may  consist  of  several  words; 
as,  He  may  have  gone  home.  Here  the  verb  is  may  have  gone. 
The  last  word  of  such  a  verb  phrase  is  called  the  Principal 
Verb,  and  the  other  words  the  Auxiliaries.  In  the  sentence 
above,  go  (gone)  is  the  principal  verb,  and  may  and  have  are  the 
auxiliaries. 

50.  In  constructing  the  full  form  of  the  verb  or  verb 
phrase  there  are  three  distinct  parts  from  which  all  other 
forms  are  made.     These  are  called  the  Principal  Parts. 

The  First  Principal  Part,  since  it  is  the  part  by  which  the 
verb  is  referred  to  as  a  word,  may  be  called  the  Name-Form. 
The  following  are  name-forms:  do,  see,  come,  walk,  pass. 

The  Second  Principal  Part  is  called  the  Past  Tense.  It 
is  formed  by  adding  ed  to  the  name-form ;  as,  walked,  pushed, 
passed.  These  verbs  that  add  ed  are  called  Regular  Verbs. 
The  verb  form  is  often  entirely  changed;  as,  done  (do),  saw  (see), 
came  (come).  These  verbs  are  called  Irregular  Verbs. 

The  Third  Principal  Part  is  called  the  Past  Participle.  It 
is  used  mainly  in  expressing  completed  action  'or  in  the  passive 
voice.  In  regular  verbs  the  past  participle  is  the  same  in 

46 


VERBS  47 

form  as  the  past  tense.  In  irregular  verbs  it  may  differ 
entirely  from  both  the  name-form  and  the  past  tense,  or  it 
may  resemble  one  or  both  of  them.  Examples :  done  (do,  did) , 
seen  (see,  saw),  come  (come,  came),  set  (set,  set). 

51.  The  name-form,  when  unaccompanied  by  auxiliaries, 
is  used  with  all  subjects,  except  those  in  the  third  person  sin- 
gular, to  assert  action  in  the  present  time  or  present  tense; 
as,  /  go,  We  come,  You  see,  Horses  run. 

The  name-form  is  also  used  with  various  auxiliaries  (may, 
might,  can,  must,  will,  should,  shall,  etc.)  to  assert  futurity, 
determination,  possibility,  possession,  etc.  Examples:  /  may 
go,  We  shall  come,  You  can  see,  Horses  should  run. 

By  preceding  it  with  the  word  to,  the  name-form  is  used  to 
form  what  is  called  the  Present  Infinitive ;  as,  /  wish  to  go,  I 
hope  to  see. 

What  may  be  called  the  s-form  of  the  verb,  or  the  singular 
form,  is  usually  constructed  by  adding  s  or  es  to  the  name- 
form.  The  s-form  is  used  with  singular  subjects  in  the  third 
person;  as,  He  goes,  She  comes,  It  runs,  The  dog  trots. 

The  s-form  is  found  in  the  third  personal  singular  of  the 
present  tense.  In  other  tenses,  if  present  at  all,  the  s-form  is 
in  the  auxiliary,  where  the  present  tense  of  the  auxiliary  is 
used  to  form  some  other  tense  of  the  principal  verb.  Exam- 
ples: He  has  (present  tense),  He  has  gone  (perfect  tense), 
He  has  been  seen. 

Some  verbs  have  no  s-form;  as,  will,  shall,  may.  The 
verb  be  has  two  irregular  s-forms:  7s,  in  the  present  tense,  and 
was  in  the  past  tense.  The  s-form  of  have  is  has. 

52.  The  past  tense  always  stands  alone  in  the  predicate; 
i.  e.,  it  should  never  be  used  with  any  auxiliaries.     To  use  it 
so,  however,  is  one  of  the  most  frequent  errors  in  grammar. 
The  following  are  past  tense  forms:   went,   saw,   wore,  tore. 
To  say,  therefore,  /  have  saw,  I  have  went,  It  was  tore,  They  wer€ 
wore,  would  be  grossly  incorrect. 

53.  The  third  principal  part,  the  past  participle,  on  the 


48  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION 

other  hand,  can  never  be  used  as  a  predicate  verb  without  an 
auxiliary.  The  following  are  distinctly  past  participle  forms: 
done,  seen,  sung,  etc.  One  could  not  then  properly  say,  / 
seen,  I  done,  I  sung,  etc. 

The  distinction  as  to  use  with  and  without  auxiliaries 
applies,  of  course,  only  to  irregular  verbs.  In  regular  verbs, 
the  past  tense  and  past  participle  are  always  the  same,  and  so 
no  error  could  result  from  their  confusion. 

The  past  participle  is  used  to  form  the  Perfect  Infinitives ; 
as,  to  have  gone,  to  have  seen,  to  have  been  seen. 

54.  The  following  is  a  list  of  the  principal  parts  of  the 
most  important  irregular  verbs.  The  list  should  be  mastered 
thoroughly.  The  student  should  bear  in  mind  always  that, 
the  past  tense  form  should  never  be  used  with  an  auxiliary, 
and  that  the  past  participle  form  should  never  be  used  as  a 
predicate  verb  without  an  auxiliary. 

In  some  instances  verbs  have  been  included  in  the  list 
below  which  are  always  regular  in  their  forms,  or  which  have 
both  regular  and  irregular  forms.  These  are  verbs  for  whose 
principal  parts  incorrect  forms  are  often  used. 

PRINCIPAL   PARTS    OF   VERBS 

Name-form  Past  Tense  Past  Partidpte 

awake  awoke  or  awaked          awaked 

begin  began  begun 

beseech  besought  besought 

bid  (to  order  or  to  greet)  bade  bidden  or  bid 

bid  (at  auction)  bid  bidden  or  bid 

blow  blew  blown 

break  broke  broken 

burst  burst  burst 

choose  chose  chosen 

chide  chid  chidden  or  chid 

come  came  ^ome 

deal  dealt  cu^ 

dive  dived  dived 


VERBS 


49 


Name-form 

Past  Tense 

Past  Participle 

do 

did 

done 

draw 

drew 

drawn 

drink 

drank 

drunk  or  drank 

drive 

drove 

driven 

eat 

ate 

eaten 

fall 

fell 

fallen 

flee 

fled 

fled 

fly 

flew 

flown 

forsake 

forsook 

forsaken 

forget 

forgot 

forgot  or  forgotten 

freeze 

froze 

frozen 

get 

got 

got  (gotten) 

give 

gave 

given 

go 

went 

gone 

hang  (clothes) 

hung 

hung 

hang  (a  man) 

hanged 

hanged 

know 

knew 

known 

lay 

laid 

laid 

lie 

lay 

lain 

mean 

meant 

meant 

plead 

pleaded 

pleaded 

prove 

proved 

proved 

ride 

rode 

ridden 

raise 

raised 

raised 

rise 

rose 

risen 

run 

ran 

run 

see 

saw 

seen 

seek 

sought 

sought 

set 

set 

set 

shake 

shook 

shaken 

shed 

shed 

shed 

shoe 

shod 

shod 

sing 

sang 

sung 

sit 

sat 

sat 

slay 

slew 

slain 

sink 

sank 

sunk 

speak 

spoke 

spoken 

50  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION 

Name-form  Past  Tense  Past  Participle 

steal  stole  stolen 

swim  swam  swum 

take  took  taken 

teach  taught  taught 

tear  tore  torn 

throw  threw  thrown 

tread  trod  trod  or  trodden 

wake  woke  or  waked  woke  or  waked 

wear  wore  worn 

weave  wove  woven 

write  wrote  written 

NOTES. — Ought  has  no  past  participle.  It  may  then  never  be  used 
with  an  auxiliary.  /  had  ought  to  go  is  incorrect.  The  idea  would  be 
amply  expressed  by  /  ought  to  go. 

Model  conjugations  of  the  verbs  to  be  and  to  see  in  all  forms  are  given 
under  §77  at  the  end  of  this  chapter. 

Exercise  29 

In  the  following  sentences  change  the  italicized  verb  so  as  to 
use  the  past  tense,  and  then  so  as  to  use  the  past  participle: 

Example:  (Original  sentence),  The  guests  begin  to  go  home. 

(Changed  to  past  tense),  The  guests  began  to  go  home. 

(Changed  to  past  participle),  The  guests  have  begun  to  go  home. 

1.  Our  books  lie  on  the  mantel. 

2.  John  comes  in  and  lays  his  books  on  the  desk. 

3.  I  see  the  parade. 

4.  He  runs  up  the  road. 

5.  They  set  their  chairs  in  a  row. 

6.  The  noise  wakes  me. 

7.  Caesar  bids  him  enter. 

8.  If  they  prove  their  innocence,  they  should  be  discharged. 

9.  His  friends  plead  strongly  for  him. 

10.  Do  you  know  what  they  mean  by  that? 

11.  I  awake  early  every  morning. 

12.  He  begins  to  think  of  strange  things. 


VERBS  51 

13.  The  children  beseech  me  to  go  with  them. 

14.  My  mother  bids  me  to  say  that  she  will  be  here  at  six. 

15.  Smith  bids  fifty  dollars  for  the  chair. 

16.  My  servants  break  many  dishes. 

17.  They  choose  their  associates. 

18.  The  box  bursts  open. 

19.  His  mother  chides  him  for  his  misbehavior. 

20.  He  comes  here  every  day. 

21.  I  deal  there  this  week. 

22.  The  boys  dive  beautifully. 

23.  You  do  so  much  more  than  is  necessary. 

24.  They  draw  lots  for  the  watch. 

25.  Jones  drinks  this  wine  very  seldom. 

26.  They  drive  over  to  Milton  once  a  week. 

27.  They  drive  a  sorrel  horse. 

28.  The  cows  eat  grass. 

29.  The  Gauls  flee  before  Caesar. 

30.  The  swallows  all  fly  into  the  chimney  at  evening. 

31.  They  forsake  the  cause  without  any  reason. 

32.  Csesar  gives  them  no  answer. 

33.  They  get  no  money  for  their  services. 

34.  You  forget  that  we  have  no  right  to  do  that. 

35.  Water  freezes  at  thirty-two  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

36.  The  ball  goes  to  the  opposing  team. 

37.  You  hang  the  rope  on  the  tree. 

38.  The  sheriff  hangs  the  murderer  at  noon. 

39.  I  know  of  nothing  more  worrying. 

40.  She  lays  the  knife  on  the  table. 

41.  They  lie  in  bed  until  eleven. 

42.  Why  they  rise  so  late,  I  do  not  know. 

43.  They  raise  no  objection. 

44.  John  runs  very  rapidly. 

45.  You  sit  very  quietly. 

46.  Caesar  seeks  to  learn  the  intention  of  the  enemy. 

47.  The  politician  vigorously  shakes  all  hands. 

48.  The  roof  sheds  water  in  all  storms. 

49.  The  blacksmith  shoes  horses. 

50.  The  choir  sings  for  each  service. 


52  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION 

51.  You  speak  too  rapidly  to  be  easily  understood, 

52.  Few  men  steal  because  they  want  to. 

53.  I  swim  one  hundred  yards  very  readily. 

54.  They  teach  all  the  elementary  branches  there. 

55.  You  take  all  subscriptions  for  the  concert. 

56.  Those  clothes  tear  readily. 

57.  They  tread  the  grapes  in  making  wine. 

58.  Who  throws  paper  on  the  floor? 

59.  I  always  wear  old  clothes  in  which  to  work. 

60.  She  writes  to  her  mother  daily. 

61.  They  weave  the  best  rugs  in  Philadelphia. 


Exercise  30 

Write  original  sentences  containing  the  following  verbs, 
correctly  used: 

Begun,  blew,  bidden,  bad,  chose,  broke,  come,  dealt,  dived,  drew, 
driven,  flew,  forsook,  froze,  given,  give,  gave,  went,  hanged,  knew, 
rode,  pleaded,  ran,  seen,  saw,  shook,  shod,  sung,  slew,  spoke,  swum, 
taken,  torn,  wore,  threw,  woven,  wrote,  written. 


Exercise  31 

Insert  the  proper  form  of  the  verb  in  the  following  sentences. 
The  verb  to  be  used  is  in  black-faced  type  at  the  beginning  of 
each  group: 

1.  Begin.     He to  act  at  once.  The  reports to  disturb 

him  a  little.     He  has to  feel  hurt  over  them. 

2.  Bid.     The  proprietor us  a  pleasant  good  day.  No  matter 

how  much  he the  auctioneer  will  not  hear  him.    We  were • 

to  enter. 

3.  Blow.     The  cornetist with  all  his  might.  The  ship  was 

• about  all  day.     The  wind  does terrifically  sometimes.     It 

may to-night.    The  wind all  last  night. 

4.  Break.     He  fell  and his  leg.  It  is  well  that  his  neck  was 

not . 


VERBS  53 

5.  Burst.     During  the  battle  the  shells  frequently right 

over  us.     Oaken  casks  have  often . 

6.  Chide.     He us  frequently  about  our  actions.    He  was* 

never himself. 

7.  Choose.    They him  president.     They  have wisely. 

8.  Come.     He at  nine  to-day.    He  has  always earlier 

heretofore.     Let  him when  he  wishes. 

9.  Deal.     Before  explaining  the  game,  he  out  the  cards'. 

10.  Dive.    Twice  last  summer  he off  the  bridge. 

11.  Do.    Thou  canst  not  say  I it.     He  often it. 

12.  Draw.     The  picture  was by  a  famous  artist.     He  for- 
merly   very  well,  but  I  think  that  now  he very  poorly. 

13.  Drive.     The  horse  was twenty  miles.     He  almost 

it  to  death. 

14.  Eat.     He  everything  which  the  others  had  not  . 

How  can  he that? 

15.  Flee.     Since  the  cashier  has ,  they  think  that  a  warrant 

would  be  useless. 

16.  Fly.    The  air-ship three  hundred  miles  on  its  first  trip. 

That  it  has so  far  is  sufficient  proof  of  its  success. 

17.  Forsake.     He his  new  friends  just  as  he  had all  the 

others. 

18.  Freeze.    The  man  was stiff.     He  evidently to  death 

so  easily  because  he  had  been  so  long  without  food. 

19.  Give.     She  was  not as  much  as  her  sisters.     Her  father 

her  less  because  of  her  extravagance.     But,  he  now  her 

enough  to  make  it  up. 

20.  Go.     She  to  school  to-day.     She  yesterday.    She 

has every  day  this  month. 

21.  Know.     He  that  he  cannot  live.     As  long  as  I  have 

him,  this  is  the  first  time  I  ever he  was  married. 

22.  Mean.     He to    do    right,  and  has    always  to 

do  so. 

23.  Ride.    They as  if  they  had a  long  distance.    They 

eay  that  they from  Larimer  this  morning. 

24.  Plead.    The  mother an  hour  for  her  son's  life, 

25.  Prove.    They him  a  thief  in  the  eyes  of  the  people,  eveo 

if  he  was  not so  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  jury. 

5 


£4  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

i. 

26.  Run.    John  the  race  as  though  he  had  races  all 

liis  life.     The  race  was very  rapidly.     Soon  after  that  race,  he 

in  another  race. 

27.  See.     Smith,  who  has  just  arrived,  says  he  two  men 

skulking  along  the  road.     He  was  not  by  them.     That  play 

is  the  best  I  ever . 

28.  Seek.     The  detectives  all  through  the  slums  for  him. 

Now  they  him  in  the  better  parts  of  the  city.    No  criminal 

was  ever  more  eagerly . 

29.  Shake.     During  the  day  his  hand  was five  hundred  times. 

He hands  with  all  who  came. 

30.  Shoe.     The  entire  army  was with  Blank's  shoes. 

31.  Sing.     The  choir  the  anthem  as  they  had  never 

it  before.     They  always it  well. 

32.  Sink.     The  stone  as  soon  as  it  is  in  the  water.     The 

ship  was in  forty  fathoms  of  water.     They the  ship  in  1861. 

33.  Speak.     Though  they  claimed  that  they  always to  her, 

she  was  really  never to  by  any  member  of  the  family. 

34.  Steal.     The  money  was  ;  whether  or  not  he  it  I 

do  not  know.     Everyone  believes  that  he  has  frequently goods 

from  the  store. 

35.  Take.     I  was for  him  several  times  that  day.    No  one 

ever me  for  him  before. 

36.  Teach.     John  school  every  day.     He  has for  ten 

years.     He  first when  he  was  eighteen  years  old. 

37.  Tear.     The  dog at  the  paper  until  it  was entirely 

to  pieces.     He up  everything  he  finds. 

38.  Throw.     He  was  by  a  horse  which  never  before  • 

anyone. 

39.  Wear.    The  trousers  were entirely  out  in  a  month,  but 

I the  coat  and  vest  for  six  months. 

40.  Weave.     This  carpet  was at  Philadelphia.     The  manu- 
facturers say  they  never a  better  one,  and  they the  best 

in  the  country. 

41.  Write.     Although  he  has  several  times,  he  has  never 

anything  about  that.     He to  me  just  last  week.     He 

at  least  once  a  month. 


VERBS  55 

Exercise  32 

Correct  the  errors  in  the  use  of  verbs  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  He  plead  all  day  to  be  released. 

2.  The  horse  was  rode  to  death. 

3.  The  letter  was  wrote  before  he  knowed  the  truth. 

4.  He  was  immediately  threw  out  of  the  room. 

5.  She  run  around  all  day  and  then  was  sick  the  next  day. 

6.  I  never  seen  anything  like  it. 

7.  He  was  very  much  shook  by  the  news. 

8.  The  matter  was  took  up  by  the  committee. 

9.  The  horse  has  been  stole  from  the  owner. 

10.  Goliath  was  slew  by  David. 

11.  The  words  have  been  spoke  in  anger. 

12.  I  have  went  to  church  every  day. 

13.  Was  the  river  froze  enough  for  skating? 

14.  He  begun  to  take  notice  immediately. 

15.  The  umbrella  was  blew  to  pieces. 

16.  I  have  broke  my  ruler. 

17.  Jones  was  chose  as  leader  of  the  class. 

18.  He  said  he  come  as  soon  as  he  could. 

19.  I  done  it. 

20.  I  have  never  did  anything  so  foolish. 

21.  I  have  ate  all  that  was  in  the  lunch-box. 

22.  The  horse  was  drove  ten  miles. 

Exercise  33 

Write  sentences  in  which  the  following  verb  forms  are  properly 
used  : 

begun,  blew,  broke,  chose,  come,  came,  done,  did,  drew,  drunk, 
drove,  ate,  flew,  forsook,  froze,  forgot,  gave,  give,  went,  hang,  hung, 
knew,  rode,  run,  shook,  sung,  slew,  spoke,  stole,  took,  tore,  threw, 
wore,  wrote. 

55.  Transitive  and  Intransitive  Verbs.  A  Transitive 
Verb  is  one  in  which  the  action  of  the  verb  goes  over  to  a  re- 


56  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION 

ceiver;  as,  He  killed  the  horse,  I  keep  my  word.  In  both  these 
sentences,  the  verb  serves  to  transfer  the  action  from  the  sub- 
ject to  the  object  or  receiver  of  the  action.  The  verbs  in  these 
sentences,  and  all  similar  verbs,  are  transitive  verbs.  All 
others,  in  which  the  action  does  not  go  to  a  receiver,  are  called 
Intransitive  Verbs. 

56.  Active  and  Passive  Voice.     The  Active  Voice  reprg* 
sents  the  subject  as  the  doer  of  the  action;  as,  /  tell,  I  see,  Bj> 
makes  chairs.     The  Passive  Voice  represents  the  subject  as 
the  receiver  of  the  action;  as,  /  am  told,  I  am  seen,  I  have  been 
seen,  Chairs  are  made  by  me.     Since  only  transitive  verbs  can 
have  a  receiver  of  the  action,  only  transitive  verbs  can  have 
both  active  and  passive  voice. 

57.  There  are  a  few  special  verbs  in  which  the  failure 
to   distinguish  between  the  transitive  and  the  intransitive 
verbs  leads  to  frequent  error.     The  most  important  of  these 
verbs  are  the  following:  sit,  set,  awake,  wake,  lie,  lay,  rise, 
arise,  raise,  fell,  and  fall.     Note  again  the  principal  parts  of 
these  verbs: 

wake  (to  rouse  another)         woke,  waked  woke,  waked 

awake  (to  cease  to  sleep)        awoke,  awaked  awaked, 

fell  (to  strike  down)  felled  felled 

fall  (to  topple  over)  fell  fallen 

lay  (to  place)  laid  laid 

lie  (to  recline)  lay  lain 

raise  (to  cause  to  ascend)       raised  raised 

(a)rise  (to  ascend)  (a)rose  (a)risen 

set  (to  place)  set  set 

sit  (to  rest)  sat  sat 

The  first  of  each  pair  of  the  above  verbs  is  transitive,  and 
the  second  is  intransitive.  Only  the  first,  then,  of  each  pair 
can  have  an  object  or  can  be  used  in  the  passive  voice. 


VERBS  57 

NOTES. — The  following  exceptions  in  the  use  of  sit  and  set  are, 
by  reason  of  usage,  regarded  as  correct :  The  sun  sets,  The  moon  sets,  They 
sat  themselves  down  to  rest,  and  He  set  out  for  Chicago. 

Lie,  meaning  to  deceive,  has  for  its  principal  parts,  lie,  lied,  lied. 
Lie,  however,  with  this  meaning  is  seldom  confused  with  lie  meaning 
to  recline.  The  present  participle  of  lie  is  lying. 

Compare  the  following  sentences,  and  nute  the  reasons 
why  the  second  form  in  each  case  is  the  correct  form. 

WRONG  RIGHT 

Awake  me  early  to-morrow.  Wake  me  early  to-morrow. 

He  was  awoke  by  the  noise.  He  was  woke  (waked)  by  the  noise. 

He  has  fallen  a  tree.  He  has  felled  a  tree. 

I  have  laid  down.  I  have  lain  down. 

I  lay  the  book  down  (past  tense) .      I  laid  the  book  down. 

The  river  has  raised.  The  river  has  risen. 

He  raised  in  bed.  He  rose  in  bed. 

I  set  there.  I  sat  there. 

I  sat  the  chair  there.  I  set  the  chair  there. 

Exercise  34 

Form  an  original  sentence  showing  the  proper  use  of  each  of 
the  following  words: 

Lie,  lay  (to  place),  sit,  set,  sat,  sitting,  setting,  lie  (to  recline),  lie 
(to  deceive),  lying,  laying,  rise,  arose,  raised,  raise,  fell  (to  topple 
over),  fallen,  felled,  awake,  wake,  awaked,  woke,  falling,  felling,  rising, 
raising,  waking,  awaking,  lain,  laid,  lied. 

Exercise  35 

Correct  such  of  the  following  sentences  as  are  wrong: 

1.  Let  sleeping  dogs  lay. 

2.  The  sun  has  sat  in  the  golden  west. 

3.  He  has  laid  in  bed  all  morning. 

4.  He  will  sit  out  on  his  journey  this  morning. 

5.  Let  him  sit  there  as  long  as  he  wishes. 

6.  He  sat  the  chair  bv  the  table. 


58  PRACTICAL   GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

7.  He  awoke  everybody  at  daylight. 

8.  He  laid  down  to  sleep. 

9.  Let  him  lie  there  until  he  wakes. 

10.  The  shower  has  lain  the  dust. 

11.  The  curtain  raised  because  it  was  raised  by  his  orders. 

12.  The  river  has  risen  four  feet. 

13.  Falling  trees  is  his  amusement. 

14.  To  have  been  awaked  then  would  have  been  sad. 

15.  To  have  waked  then  would  have  been  sad. 

16.  Waking  at  dawn,  they  renewed  the  journey. 

17.  He  has  set  there  all  day. 

18.  He  lay  the  papers  before  the  judge. 

19.  The  judge  laid  the  papers  aside. 

20.  Lieing  in  the  shade  is  his  most  strenuous  occupation. 

Exercise  36 

In  the  following  sentences  fill  the  blanks  with  the  proper  forms 
of  the  verbs  indicated: 

SIT  AND  SET 

1.  I in  that  seat  all  the  evening. 

2.  Please here  until  I  return. 

3.  He  was  still ting  there  on  my  return. 

4.  The  sun in  the  west. 

5.  He out  for  home  yesterday. 

6.  down  and  rest  awhile. 

7.  James down  and  talked  to  me. 

8.  He  was  engaged  in ting  out  flowers. 

9.  I the  bucket  on  the  rock  above  the  bridge. 

10.  Last  evening  we at  the  table  for  more  than  an  hour. 

11.  here  until  I  call  my  mother. 

12.  the  lamp  on  the  table. 

13.  He  has there  all  day. 

14.  The  chair  was by  the  desk. 

15.  I  usually up  until  twelve. 

16.  She the  hen  on  some  eggs  and  she  remained there. 

17.  She  told  me  to there,  and  I down. 


VERBS  59 

18.  By  whom  has  the  lamp  been there? 

19.  I my  chair  by  the  window  and there  all  the  afternoon. 

20.  How  can  she still  for  so  long? 

21.  The  moon at  twelve. 

LAY  AND  LIE 

1.  I down  this  afternoon  to  rest. 

2.  I in  bed  until  late  every  morning. 

3.  I  have  frequently in  bed  until  eleven. 

4.  He  always his  books  on  the  desk. 

5.  He  just  now his  books  on  the  desk. 

6.  He  has them  there  every  morning. 

7.  His  books  have  sometimes there  all  day. 

8.  His  books  have  sometimes  been ing  there  before  I  arrive. 

9.  After  he down  he  remembered  that  he  had  left  a  letter 

on  his  desk. 

10.  Will  it  not  be  well  for  you  to down  for  a  while? 

11.  I on  the  grass  yesterday  for  an  hour  or  more. 

12.  I  have down  and  feel  much  better. 

13.  Now  I me  down  to  sleep. 

14.  The  scene  of  the  play  is in  rural  Pennsylvania. 

15.  The  tramps behind  the  barn  waiting  for  dawn. 

16.  I  had down  to  rest  before  (set  or  sit)  ting  out  on  my 

journey. 

17.  The  floor  was by  an  expert  carpenter. 

18.  She  told  me  to the  matter  before  the  teacher. 

19.  down,  Fido. 

20.  When  we  are  weary,  we down. 

21.  Who that  on  the  table? 

22.  He  has  repeatedly about  the  matter. 

23.  He without  the  slightest  hesitation. 

24.  ing  down  is  a  good  way  to  rest. 

25.  ing  is  a  sin. 

26.  He to  his  father,  and  his  father  knew  it. 

RAISE  AND  RISE  (ARISE) 

1.  I  will and  go  unto  my  father. 

2.  He  has early  to-day. 


60  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

3.  I  do  not  know  why  he  • so  early. 

4.  your  hand  if  you  know. 

5.  Every  one his  hand. 

6.  They  have  all their  hands. 

7.,  All  their  hands  were at  once. 

8.  The  price  of  meat  has r. 

9.  The  bread  would  not . 

10.  I in  order  that  I  might  see  better. 

11.  The  flag  was  very  carefully  • . 

12.  He  tried  to  himself  from  the  condition  into  which  he 

had  fallen. 

13.  The  curtain  is  to at  eight.     I  myself  shall  see  to ing 

it  then. 

14.  The  boy and  answers. 

15.  He  is rapidly  to  prominence. 

16.  Will  you  please the  window? 

17.  The  safe  was by  means  of  a  rope. 

18.  It  is  like  trying  to one's  self  by  one's  boot-straps. 

19.  and  march  to  the  front  of  the  room. 

20.  The  river rapidly. 

FELL  AND  FALL 

1.  Gladstone,  when  living, a  tree  each  morning  for  exercise. 

2.  To an  ox  with  one  blow  of  the  fist  is  a  feat  of  wonderful 

strength. 

3.  He  was to  the  earth  by  a  blow  from  a  club. 

4.  To often  is  to  be  expected  in  learning  to  skate. 

5.  ing  down  is  a  small  matter  to  the  young. 

6.  He  has  often from  the  roof  of  the  porch. 

7.  After  he once,  he  seemed  to  try  to  do  so  again. 

8.  I  did  not  see  him . 

9.  Not  a  shot  is  fired  but  a  bird . 


10.  Let  the  tree  be across  the  road. 

11.  It  is  hard  to  avoid ing  on  the  ice. 

AWAKE  AND  WAKE 

1.  Have  them  • me  very  early. 

2.  He  went  upstairs  and his  brother. 


VERBS  61 

3.  His  brother  did  not  wish  to  be so  early. 

4.  This  morning  I at  dawn. 

5.  It  is  unpleasant  to so  early. 

6.  You  say  that  you  have  never after  nine? 

7.  Who so  early,  this  morning? 

8.  He  would  not  say  who him. 

9.     ing  in  the  dead  of  night  is  unpleasant. 

10.    ing  everybody  up  by  their  noise  is  an  every  night  occur- 
rence. 

11.  The  sun me  early. 

12.  The  whole  country-side  seemed  to at  once. 

13.  He  had  himself at  six  o'clock. 

58.  Mode.     Mode  is  that  form  of  the  verb  which  indicates 
the  manner  in  which  the  action  or  state  is  to  be  regarded. 
There  are  several  modes  in  English,  but  only  between  the 
indicative  and  subjunctive  modes  is  the  distinction  important. 
Generally  speaking,  the  Indicative  Mode  is  used  when  the  state- 
ment is  regarded  as  a  fact  or  as  truth,  and  the  Subjunctive 
Mode  is  used  when  the  statement  expresses  uncertainty  or 
implies  some  degree  of  doubt. 

59,  Forms   of   the    Subjunctive.     The  places  in  which 
the  [subjunctive  differs  from  the  indicative  are  in  the  pres- 
ent   and    past   tenses    of  the  verb  be,   and  in  the  present 
tense  of  active  verbs.      The    following    outline    will    show 
the  difference  between   the   indicative   and  the  subjunctive 
of  be: 

INDICATIVE   PRESENT    OP   BE  INDICATIVE   PAST  OF    BE 

I  am  we  are  I  was  we  were 

thou  art  you  are  thou  wert  or  wast          you  were 

he  (she,  it)  is        they  are  he  (she,  it)  was  they  were 

SUBJUNCTIVE   PRESENT  OF   BE  SUBJUNCTIVE  PAST  OF   BE 

If  I  be  If  we  be  If  I  were  If  we  were 

If  thou  be  If  you  be  If  thou  were  If  you  were 

If  he  (she,  it)  be    If  they  be  If  he  (she,  it)  were         If  they  were 


62  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

//  is  used  only  as  an  example  of  the  conjunctions  on  which  the 
subjunctive  depends.  Other  conjunctions  may  be  used,  or  the  verb 
may  precede  the  subject. 

NOTE. — It  will  be  noticed  that  thou  art  and  thou  wast,  etc.,  have  been 
used  in  the  second  person  singular.  Strictly  speaking,  these  are  the 
proper  forms  to  be  used  here,  even  though  you  are  and  you  were,  etc., 
are  customarily  used  in  addressing  a  single  person. 

In  the  subjunctive  of  be,  it  will  be  noted  that  the  form 
be  is  used  throughout  the  present  tense,  and  the  form  were 
throughout  the  past  tense. 

In  other  verbs  the  subjunctive,  instead  of  having  the 
s-form  in  the  third  person  singular  of  the  present  tense,  has 
the  name-form,  or  the  same  form  as  all  the  other  forms  of  the 
present  tense;  as,  indicative,  he  runs,  she  sees,  it  seems,  he  has; 
subjunctive,  if  he  run,  though  she  see,  lest  it  seem,  if  he  have. 

NOTE. — An  examination  of  the  model  conjugations  under  §77  will 
give  a  further  understanding  of  the  forms  of  the  subjunctive. 

60.  Use  of  Indicative  and  Subjunctive.  The  indicative 
mode  would  be  properly  used  in  the  following  sentence,  when 
the  statement  is  regarded  as  true:  //  that  evidence  is  true,  then 
he  is  a  criminal.  Similarly :  //  he  is  rich,  he  ought  to  be  charitable. 
Most  directly  declarative  statements  are  put  in  the  indicative 
mode. 

But  when  the  sense  of  the  statement  shows  uncertainty 
in  the  speaker's  mind,  or  shows  that  the  condition  stated  is 
regarded  as  contrary  to  fact  or  as  untrue,  the  subjunctive  is 
used.  Note  the  two  sentences  following,  in  which  the  con- 
ditions are  properly  in  the  subjunctive:  //  those  statements 
be  true,  then  all  statements  are  true,  Were  I  rich,  I  might  be 
charitable. 

The  subjunctive  is  usually  preceded  by  the  conjunctions, 
if,  though,  lest,  although,  or  the  verb  precedes  the  subject. 
But  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  these  do  not  always  indicate 
the  subjunctive  mode.  The  use  of  the  subjunctive  depends  on 


VERBS  63 

whether  the  condition  is  regarded  as  a  fact  or  as  contrary  to 
fact,  certain  or  uncertain. 

It  should  be  added  that  the  subjunctive  is  perhaps  going 
out  of  use;  some  of  the  best  writers  no  longer  use  its  forms. 
This  passing  of  the  subjunctive  is  to  be  regretted  and  to  be 
discouraged,  since  its  forms  give  opportunity  for  many  fine 
shades  of  meaning. 

Exercise  37 

Write  five  sentences  which  illustrate  the  correct  use  of  be  in  the 
third  person  singular  without  an  auxiliary,  and  five  which  illus- 
trate the  correct  use  of  were  in  the  third  person  singular. 

Exercise  38 

Choose  the  preferable  form  in  the  following  sentences,  and  be 
able  to  give  a  definite  reason  for  your  choice.  In  some  of  the  sen- 
tences either  form  may  be  used  correctly: 

1.  He  acts  as  if  it  were  was  possible  always  to  escape  death. 

2.  If  it  was  were  near  enough,  I  should  walk. 

3.  If  I  was  were  only  wealthy! 

4.  If  I  were  was  in  his  place,  I  should  study  medicine. 

5.  If  you  are  be  right,  then  the  book  is  wrong. 

6.  If  he  was  were  I,  he  would  come. 

7.  Though  he  was  were  very  economical,  he  remained  poor. 

8.  Though  she  was  were  an  angel,  I  should  dislike  her. 

9.  If  he  be  is  there,  ask  him  to  pay  the  bill. 

10.  If  he  be  is  there,  he  makes  no  sign  of  his  presence. 

11.  If  this  be  is  wrong,  then  all  love  of  country  is  wrong. 

12.  If  it  rains  rain,  I  stay  at  school. 

13.  Take  care  lest  you  are  be  deceived  by  appearances. 

14.  Would  that  I  was  were  a  bird. 

15.  If  it  snow  snows,  I  can't  come. 

16.  If  your  father  comes  come,  bring  him  to  dinner. 

17.  If  your  father  was  were  here,  you  would  act  differently. 

18.  Though  he  were  was  king  over  all  the  earth  I  should  despise 
him. 


64  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

19.  If  he  come  comes,  he  will  find  me  at  home. 

20.  Was  were  it  necessary,  I  should  jump. 

21.  If  to-morrow  be  is  pleasant,  we  shall  go  driving. 

22.  If  my  mother  was  were  here,  she  would  say  I  might  go. 

23.  If  she  was  were  at  home,  I  did  not  hear  of  it. 

24.  If  that  is  be  his  motive,  he  is  unworthy. 

25.  Though  this  seem  seems  improbable,  it  is  true. 

26.  If  a  speech  is  be  praised  by  none  but  literary  men,  it  is  bad. 

27.  If  the  father  pays  pay  the  debt,  he  will  be  released. 

28.  Though  Mary  be  is  young,  she  is  a  writer  of  note. 

29.  Unless  he  takes  take  better  care  of  his  health,  he  will  die. 

30.  If  he  be  is  honest,  he  has  not  shown  it. 

31.  If  he  be  is  honest,  he  will  insist  on  paying  me. 

32.  If  he  ever  tell  tells  the  truth,  he  conceals  the  fact. 

61.  Agreement  of  Verb  with  its  Subject.  The  verb  should 
agree  with  its  subject  in  person  and  number.  The  most 
frequent  error  is  the  failure  of  the  verb  to  agree  in  number 
with  its  subject.  Singular  subjects  are  used  with  plural  verbs, 
and  plural  subjects  with  singular  verbs.  These  errors  arise 
chiefly  from  a  misapprehension  of  the  true  number  of  the 
subject. 

The  s-form  of  the  verb  is  the  only  distinct  singular  form, 
and  occurs  only  in  the  third  person,  singular,  present  in- 
dicative; as,  He  runs,  she  goes,  it  moves.  Is,  was,  and  has  are 
the  singular  forms  of  the  auxiliaries.  Am  is  used  only  with 
a  subject  in  the  first  person,  and  is  not  a  source  of  confusion. 
The  other  auxiliaries  have  no  singular  forms. 

Failure  of  the  verb  and  its  subject  to  agree  in  person 
seldom  occurs,  and  so  can  cause  little  confusion. 

Examine  the  following  correct  forms  of  agreement  of  verb 
and  subject: 

A  barrel  of  clothes  was  shipped  (not  were  shipped}. 

A  man  and  a  woman  have  been  here  (not  has  been  here). 

Boxes  are  scarce  (not  is  scarce). 

When  were  the  brothers  here  (not  when  was)? 


VERBS  65 

62.    Agreement  of  Subject  and  Verb  in  Number.     The 

general  rule  to  be  borne  in  mind  in  regard  to  number,  is  that 
it  is  the  meaning  and  not  the  form  of  the  subject  that  deter- 
mines whether  to  use  the  singular  or  the  plural  form  of  the 
verb.  This  rule  also  applies  to  the  use  of  singular  or  plural 
pronouns. 

Many  nouns  plural  in  form  are  singular  in  meaning;  as,  politics 
measles,  news,  etc. 

Many,  also,  are  treated  as  plurals,  though  in  meaning  they  are 
singular;  as,  forceps,  tongs,  trousers. 

Some  nouns,  singular  in  form,  are,  according  to  the  sense  in  which, 
they  are  used,  either  singular  or  plural  in  meaning;  as,  committee, 
family,  pair,  jury,  assembly,  means.  The  following  sentences  are  all 
correct :  The  assembly  has  closed  its  meeting,  The  assembly  are  all  total 
abstainers,  The  whole  family  is  a  famous  one,  The  whole  family  are  sick. 

In  the  use  of  the  adjective  pronouns,  some,  each,  etc.,  the  noun  is 
often  omitted.  When  this  is  done,  error  is  often  made  by  using  the 
wrong  number  of  the  verb.  Each,  either,  neither,  this,  that,  and  onet 
when  used  alone  as  subjects,  require  singular  verbs.  All,  those,  these, 
few,  many,  always  require  plural  verbs.  Any,  none,  and  some  may 
take  either  singular  or  plural  verbs.  In  most  of  these  cases,  as  is  true 
throughout  the  subject  of  agreement  in  number,  reason  will  determine 
the  form  to  be  used. 

Some  nouns  in  a  plural  form  express  quantity  rather  than  number. 
When  quantity  is  plainly  intended  the  singular  verb  should  be  used. 
Examine  the  following  sentences ;  each  is  correct :  Three  drops  of  medi- 
cine is  a  dose,  Ten  thousand  tons  of  coal  was  purchased  by  the  firm, 
Two  hundred  dollars  was  the  amount  of  the  collection,  Two  hundred 
silver  dollars  were  in  the  collection. 


66  PRACTICAL   GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

Exercise  39 

In  each  of  the  following  sentences,  by  giving  a  reason,  justify 
the  correctness  of  the  agreement  in  number  of  the  verb  and  the 
noun: 

1.  The  jury  have  agreed. 

2.  The  jury  has  been  sent  out  to  reconsider  its  verdict. 

3.  The  committee  has  presented  its  report,  but  they  have  differed 
in  regard  to  one  matter. 

4.  The  whole  tribe  was  destroyed. 

5.  The  tribe  were  scattered  through  the  different  states. 

6.  The  regiment  were  almost  all  sick. 

7.  A  variety  of  persons  was  there. 

8.  The  society  meets  each  month. 

9.  The  society  is  divided  in  its  opinion. 

10.  A  number  were  unable  to  be  present. 

11.  A  great  number  was  present. 

12.  The  number  present  was  great. 

13.  What  means  were  used  to  gain  his  vote? 

14.  That  means  of  gaining  votes  is  corrupt. 

15.  Seventeen  pounds  was  the  cat's  weight. 

16.  Twenty  years  of  his  life  was  spent  in  prison. 

17.  Two  hundred  pounds  was  his  weight. 

18.  The  family  are  all  at  home. 

19.  The  family  is  large. 

20.  A  pair  of  gloves  has  been  lost. 

21.  A  pair  of  twins  were  sitting  in  the  doorway. 

22.  The  army  was  defeated. 

Exercise  40 

Construct  sentences  in  which  each  of  the  words  named  below 
is  used  correctly  as  the  subject  of  some  one  of  the  verbs,  is,  was, 
has,  have,  are,  was,  have,  go,  goes,  run,  runs,  come,  comes: 

One,  none,  nobody,  everybody,  this,  that,  these,  those,  former, 
latter,  few,  some,  many,  other,  any,  all,  such,  news,  pains,  measles, 
gallows,  ashes,  dregs,  goods,  pincers,  thanks,  victuals,  vitals,  mumps, 


VERBS  67 

flock,  crowd,  fleet,  group,  choir,  class,  army,  mob,  tribe,  herd,  com- 
mittee, tons,  dollars,  bushels,  carloads,  gallons,  days,  months. 

Exercise  41 

Go  over  each  of  the  above  sentences  and  determine  whether 
it  or  they  should  be  used  in  referring  to  the  subject. 


The  following  rules  govern  the  agreement  of  the 
verb  with  a  compound  subject : 

1.  When  a  singular  noun  is  modified  by  two  adjectives  so  as  to 
mean  two  distinct  things,  the  verb  should  be  in  the  plural;  as,  French 
and  German  literature  are  studied. 

2.  When  the  verb  applies  to  the  different -parts  of  the  compound 
subject,  the  plural  form  of  the  verb  should  be  used;  as,  John  and  Harry 
are  still  to  come. 

3.  When  the  verb  applies  to  one  subject  and  not  to  the  others, 
it  should  agree  with  that  subject  to  which  it  applies;  as,  The  employee, 
and  not  the  employers,  was  to  blame,  The  employers,  and  not  the  em- 
ployee, were  to  blame,  The  boy,  as  well  as  his  sisters,  deserves  praise. 

4.  When  the  verb  applies  separately  to  several  subjects,  each  in 
the  singular,  the  verb  should  be  singular;  as,  Each  book  and  each  paper 
was  in  its  place,  No  help  and  no  hope  is  found  for  him,  Either  one  or 
the  other  is  he,  Neither  one  nor  the  other  is  he. 

5.  When  the  verb  applies  separately  to  several  subjects,  some 
of  which  are  singular  and  some  plural,  it  should  agree  with  the  subject 
nearest  to  it ;  as,  Neither  the  boy,  nor  his  sisters  deserve  praise,  Neither 
the  sisters  nor  the  boy  deserves  praise. 

6.  When  a  verb  separates  its  subjects,  it  should  agree  with  the 
first;  as,  The  leader  was  slain  and  all  his   men,   The  men  were  slain , 
and  also  the  leader. 

Exercise  42 

Choose  the  proper  form  of  the  verb  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  Hard  and  soft  coal  is  are  used.   w- 

2.  The  boy  and  the  girl  have  has  come. 

3.  Neither  James  nor  I  are  is  to  go. 


68  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION       - 

4.  Neither  James  nor  they  ewe  is  to  go. 

5.  Henry,  and  not  his  sister,  is  ape  sure  to  be  invited. 

6.  The  children  and  their  father  ~w&s  were  on  the  train. 

7.  Each  man  and  each  woman  was  ^&&re  present. 

8.  Either  Tennyson  or  Wordsworth  was  were  the  author  of  that 
poem. 

9.  Either  the  man  or  his  children  was  were  lost. 

10.  Either  the  children  or  their  father  was  were  lost. 

11.  Bread  and  milk  are  is  frugal  but  wholesome  fare. 

12.  The  teacher  was  were  cut  off  by  the  fire,  and  also  her  pupils. 

13.  The  pupils  was  were  cut  off  by  the  fire,  and  also  the  teacher. 

14.  Dogs  and  cats  is  are  useless  animals. 

15.  Neither  the  daughters  nor  their  mother  is  are  at  home. 

16.  Either  the  soldier  or  his  officers  is  are  mistaken. 

17.  The  cat  and  all  her  kittens  was  were  at  the  door. 

18.  Tennyson,  not  Wordsworth,  were  was  the  author. 

19.  Each  of  the  trustees  has  have  a  vote. 

20.  Our  success  or  our  failure  is  are  due  solely  to  ourselves. 

21.  Neither  sincerity  nor  cordiality  characterize  characterizes  him» 

22.  Every  one  of  these  chairs  is  are  mine. 

23.  Each  day  and  each  hour  bring  brings  new  questions. 

24.  The  car  and  all  its  passengers  was  were  blown  up. 

25.  The  ambition  and  activity  of  the  man  has  have  been  the 
muse  causes  of  his  success. 

26.  Old  and  new  hay  is  are  equally  good  for  horses. 

27.  Matthew  or  Paul  are  is  responsible  for  that  belief. 

28.  A  man,  a  woman,  and  a  child  is  are  comprised  in  the  group. 

29.  The  pupils  and  also  the  teacher  were  was  embarrassed. 

30.  The  teacher  and  also  the  pupils  were  was  embarrassed. 

31.  Neither  he  nor  I  are  is  am  going. 

32.  Book  after  book  was  were  taken  from  the  shelves. 

33.  Either  Aunt  Mary  or  her  daughters  is  are  coming. 

34.  Either  the  daughters  or  Aunt  Mary  is  are  coming. 

35.  Aunt  Mary,  but  not  her  daughters,  is  are  coming. 

36.  The  daughters,  but  not  Aunt  Mary,  is  are  coming. 

37.  Both  Aunt  Mary  and  her  daughter  is  are  coming. 

38.  Mary,  and  not  her  mother,  is  are  coming. 

39.  No  preacher  and  no  woman  is  are  allowed  to  enter. 


VERBS  69 

40.  Every  adult  man  and  woman  has  have  a  vote. 

41.  Money,  if  not  culture,  gains  gain  a  way. 

42.  Brain  power,  as  well  as  money,  talk  talks. 

43.  Each  boy  and  girl  bring  brings  books. 

64.     Some  miscellaneous  cautions  in  regard  to  agreement 
in  number : 

1.  Do  not  use  a  plural  verb  after  a  singular  subject  modified  by  an 
adjective  phrase ;  as,  The  thief,  with  all  his  booty,  was  captured. 

2.  Do  not  use  a  singular  form  of  the  verb  after  you  and  they* 
Say:  You  were,  they  are,  they  were,  etc.,  not,  you  was,  they  was,  etc. 

3.  Do  not  mistake  a  noun  modifier  for  the  noun  subject.     In  the 
sentence,  The  safe  of  boxes  wasf  increased,  sale,  not  boxes,  is  the  subject 
of  the  verb. 

4.  When  the  subject  is  a  relative  pronoun,  the  number  and  the 
person  of  the   antecedent  determine  the  number  and  the  person  of 
the  verb.     Both  of  the  following  sentences  are  correct :  He  is  the  only 
one  of  the  men  that  is  to  be  trusted,  He  is  one  of  those  men  that  are  to  b& 
trusted.    It  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  singulars  and  the  plurals  of 
the  relative  pronouns  are  alike  in  form;  that,  who,  etc.,  may  refer  to- 
one  or  more  than  one. 

5.  Do  not  use  incorrect  contractions  of  the  verb  with  not.    Don't 
cannot  be  used  with  he  or  she  or  it,  or  with  any  other  singular  subject 
in  the  third  person.   One  should  say,  He  doesn't,  not  he  don't;  it  doesn't, 
not  it  don't;  man  doesn't,  not  man  don't.     The  proper  form  of  the  verb 
that  is  being  contracted  in  these  instances  is  does,  not  do.    Ain't  and 
hain't  are  always  wrong;  no  such  contractions  are  recognized.      Such 
colloquial  contractions  as  don't,  can't,  etc.,  should  not  be   used  at 
all  in  formal  composition. 

Exercise  43 

Correct  such  of  the  following  sentences  as  are  wrong: 

Vv$o 

1.  The  ship,  with  all  her  crew,  were  lost. 

2.  You  was  there,  John,  was  you  not? 

3.  They  was  never  known  to  do  that  before. 

4.  A  barrel  of  apples  were  sold. 

6 


70  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

5.  How  many  were  there  who  was  there  ? 

6.  This  is  one  of  the  books  that  is  always  read. 

7.  He  don't  know  his  own  relatives. 

8.  I  ain't  coming  to-night. 

9.  The  art  gallery,  with  all  its  pictures,  was  destroyed. 

10.  John,  when  was  you  in  the  city? 

11.  The  book,  with  all  its  errors,  is  valuable. 

12.  Who  they  was,  I  couldn't  tell. 

13.  This    is    one    of    the    mountains    which    are    called    "The 
Triplets." 

14.  This  is  one  of  the  eleven  pictures  that  has  gained  prizes. 

15.  The  hands  of  the  clock  is  wrong. 

16.  The  gallery  of  pictures  are  splendid. 

17.  This  is  one  of  those  four  metals  that  is  valuable. 

18.  This  is  the  one  of  those  four  metals  that  are  valuable. 

19.  That  answer,  as  you  will  see,  hain't  right. 

20.  The  whole  box  of  books  were  shipped. 

Exercise  44 

In  the  following  sentences  correct  such  as  are  wrong: 

1.  "Cows"  are  a  common  noun. 

2.  Such  crises  seldom  occur^. 

3.  Fifty  dollars  we^re  given  him  as  a  present. 

4.  There  were  four  men,  each  of  which  were  sent  by  a  different 
bank. 

5.  At  that  time  the  morals  of  men  were  very  low. 

6.  Mathematics  are  my  most  interesting  study. 

7.  There  was  once  two  boys  who  was  imprisoned  in  the  Tower. 

8.  The  jury  is  delivering  its  verdict. 

9.  The  "Virginians"  is  a  famous  bock. 

10.  Ten  minutes  were  given  him  in  which  to  answer. 

11.  Every  one  of  these  farms  are  mine. 

12.  Lee,  with  his  whole  army,  surrender. 

13.  Farm  after  farm  were  passed  by  the  train. 

14.  He  is  one  of  the  greatest  men  that  has  ever  been  president. 

15.  Three  hundred  miles  of  wires  were  cut  down. 

16.  Three  fourths  of  his  time  are  wasted. 


VERBS  71 

17.  Three  quarts  of  oats  is  all  that  is  needed. 

18.  A  variety  of  sounds  charms  the  ear. 

19.  A  variety  of  recitations  were  given. 

20.  The  committee  have  adjourned. 

21.  Washington  was  one  of  the  greatest  generals  that  has  ever 
lived. 

22.  Take  one  of  the  books  that  is  lying  on  the  table. 

23.  The  house  is  one  of  those  that  overlooks  the  bay. 

24.  Question  after  question  were  propounded  to  him. 

25.  He  was  one  of  the  best  orators  that  has  been  produced  by  the 
school. 

26.  He  is  one  of  those  persons  who  are  quick  to  learn. 

27.  A  black  and  white  horse  were  in  the  ring. 

28.  A  black  and  a  white  horse  was  in  the  ring. 

29.  The  committee  disagree  on  some  points. 

30.  Mary,  where  was  you  yesterday? 

31.  The  end  and  aim  of  his  life  are  to  get  money. 

32.  All  the  crop  were  lost. 

33.  One  of  them  are  gone. 

34.  There  comes  the  children. 

35.  Were  either  of  these  men  elected? 

36.  The  alumni  of  this  school  is  not  very  loyal. 

37.  There  seem  to  be  few  here. 

38.  There  seems  to  be  a  few  here. 

39.  Neither  of  the  letters  were  received. 

40.  In  all  those  songs  there  are  a  sprightliness  and  charm. 

41.  The  Association  of  Engineers  are  still  flourishing. 

42.  Neither  John  nor  Henry  have  come. 

43.  Either  this  book  or  that  are  wrong. 

44.  This  book  and  that  is  wrong. 

45.  This  book,  not  that,  is  wrong. 

46.  Either  this  book  or  those  students  is  wrong. 

47.  Either  those  students,  or  this  book  is  wrong. 

48.  This  chemical  with  its  compounds  were  the  agents  used  in 
tanning. 

65.     Use  of  Shall  and  Will.     The  use  of  the  auxiliaries, 
shall  and  will,  with  their  past  tenses,  is  a  source  of  very  many 


72  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

errors.     The  following  outline  will  show  the  correct  use  of 
shall  and  will,  except  in  dependent  clauses  and  questions: 

To  indicate  simple  futurity  or  probability : 

Use  shall  with  /  and  we;  use  will  with  all  other  subjects. 

To  indicate  promise,  determination,  threat,  or  command  on  the 
part  of  the  speaker;  i.  e.,  action  which  the  speaker  means  to  control: 

Use  will  with  /  and  we;  use  shall  with  all  other  subjects. 

Examine  the  following  examples  of  the  correct  use  of 
shall  and  will: 

Statements  as  to  probable  future  events : 

We  shall  probably  be  there. 

I  think  you  will  want  to  be  there. 

It  will  rain  before  night. 

Statements  of  determination  on  the  part  of  the  speaker: 

/  will  come  in  spite  of  his  command. 

You  shall  go  home. 

It  shall  not  happen  again,  I  promise  you. 

66.  Shall  and  Will  in  Questions.  In  interrogative  sen- 
tences shall  should  always  be  used  with  the  first  person.  In 
the  second  and  third  persons  that  auxiliary  should  be  used 
which  is  logically  expected  in  the  answer. 

Examine  the  agreement  in  the  use  of  shall  and  will  in  the 
following  questions  and  answers: 

QUESTIONS.  ANSWERS. 

Shall  I  miss  the  car?  You  will  miss  it. 

Shall  you  be  there?  I  think  I  shall  (probability). 

Will  he  do  it?  I  think  he  will  (assertion). 

Shall  your  son  obey  the  teacher?  He  shall  (determination). 

Will  you  promise  to  come!  We  will  come  (promise). 


VERBS  73 

67.  Shall  and  Will  in  Dependent  Clauses.  In  dependent 
clauses  which  are  introduced  by  that,  expressed  or  understood, 
the  auxiliary  should  be  used  which  would  be  proper  if  the 
dependent  clause  were  a  principal  clause.  The  sentence, 
They  assure  us  that  they  shall  come,  is  wrong.  The  direct 
assurance  would  be,  We  will  come.  The  auxiliary,  then,  in 
a  principal  clause  would  be  will.  Will  should,  therefore,  be 
the  auxiliary  in  the  dependent  construction,  and  the  sentence 
should  read,  They  assure  us  that  they  will  come.  Further 
examples : 

I  suppose  we  shall  have  to  pay. 

He  thinks  that  you  will  be  able  to  do  it. 

He  has  decided  that  John  shall  replace  the  book. 

In  all  dependent  clauses  expressing  a  condition  or  con- 
tingency use  shall  with  all  subjects.  Examples: 

//  he  shall  go  to  Europe,  it  will  be  his  tenth  trip  abroad. 
//  you  shall  go  away,  who  will  run  the  farm? 
//  /  shall  die,  I  shall  die  as  an  honest  man. 

Exercise  45 

Justify  the  correct  use  of  shall  and  will  in  the  following 

tences:  . 

1.  I  will  go  if  you  wish. 

2.  I  shall  probably  go  if  you  wish. 

3.  I  will  have  it  in  spite  of  all  you  can  do. 

4.  We  shall  return  by  way  of  Dover. 

5.  We  will  fight  it  out  on  this  line  if  it  takes  all  summer. 

6.  I  feel  that  I  shall  not  live  long. 

7.  We  think  we  shall  come  to-morrow. 

8.  I  promise  you,  the  money  shall  be  raised. 

9.  You  will  then  go  to  Philadelphia. 

10.  You  shall  never  hear  from  me  again. 

11.  He  will  surely  come  to-morrow. 


74  PRACTICAL   GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

12.  How  shall  you  answer  him? 

13.  I  think  I  shall  ride. 

14.  He  is  sure  they  will  come. 

15.  He  is  sure  that  I  will  come. 

16.  Shall  you  be  there? 

17.  Will  he  who  fails  be  allowed  to  have  a  reexamination? 

18.  Will  you  be  there? 

19.  Will  all  be  there? 

20.  He  says  he  shall  be  there. 

21.  He  has  promised  that  he  will  be  there. 

22.  I  fear  that  he  will  fail  to  pass. 

23.  We  think  she  will  soon  be  well. 

24.  We  are  determined  that  they  shall  pay. 

25.  We  expect  that  they  will  bring  their  books. 

26.  I  doubt  that  he  will  pay. 

27.  We  have  promised  that  we  will  do  it. 

28.  If  he  shall  ask,  shall  I  refer  him  to  you? 

Exercise  46 
Fill  the  blanks  in  the  following  sentences  with  shall  or  will: 

1.  I  think  I  *~ —  find  the  work  easy. 

2.  I probably  be  refused,  but  I go  anyway. 

3.  you  be  busy  to-night?    Yes,  I be  in  class  until  ten. 

4.  I probably  fail  to  pass  the  examination. 

5.  If  no  c__3  assists  me,  I drown. 

6.  No.     I never  sell  my  library. 

7.  If  I  fail  I be  obliged  to  take  an  examination. 

8.  my  men  begin  work  to-day? 

9.  you  stop  at  Chicago  on  your  way  West?    No,  I  don't 

think  I . 

10.  you  promise  me  to  sing  at  the  concert  to-night?     Yes, 

I sing  to-night. 

11.  I  put  more  wood  on  the  fire? 

12.  I be  lost ;  no  one help  me. 

13.  It be  there  when  you  need  it. 

14.  It  is  demanded  that  the  pupils be  orderly  and  attentive. 

15.  I  think  it rain  soon. 


VERBS  75 

16.  We be  disappointed. 

17. we  be  permitted  to  go? 

18.  We do  it  for  you. 

19.  I  go  or  remain  at  home? 

20.  I be  very  grateful  to  you  if  you do  this, 

21.  If  you ask  her,  she go  with  you. 

22.  If  you stop,  I go  with  you. 

23.  Where we  join  you? 

24.  I  think  we be  there  in  time. 

25.  I go  to  the  river  for  a  boat  ride. 

26.  When you  be  twenty  years  of  age? 

27.  we  ever  see  you  again? 

28.  Perhaps  we return  next  year. 

29.  We  promise,  we return. 

30.  You probably  suffer  for  it. 

31.  I not  impose  on  you  in  that  way. 

32.  I  ask  for  your  mail? 

33.  I  hope  that  we be  there  before  the  curtain  rises. 

34.  they  probably  be  there  ? 

35.  you  please  fetch  me  a  paper? 

36.  we  stop  for  you  on  our  way  downtown? 

37.  When I  find  you  in  your  office? 

38.  They never  do  it  if  I  can  help. 

39.  You do  as  I  say. 

40.  I never,  never,  go  there  again. 

41.  We decide  what  to  do  about  that  at  our  next  meeting 

which be  in  October. 

42.  it  make  any  difference  to  you? 

43.  I  go  with  you?     „ 

44.  No,  you please  stay  here. 

45.  He never  enter  this  house  again. 

46.  It  is  believed  that  they probably  be  present. 

47.  He  fears  that  he die. 

48.  He  requests  that  you come  to-day  at  seven  o'clock. 

49.  She  asks  that  it be  sent  at  once. 

50.  It  is  thought  that  his  death not  seriously  change  things. 

51.  It  is  believed  that  the  emperor have  to  retract. 

52.  A  story  is  told  that gain  little  credence. 


76  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION 

53.  I  fear  that  I take  cold. 

54.  She  says  that  I take  cold. 

55.  They  say  that  they do  it  in  spite  of  anything  done  to 

prevent. 

56.  He  is  determined  that  he go  away. 

57.  She  is  determined  that  he go  to  school. 

58.  They  say  they  • probably  not  go. 

59.  John  thinks  he probably  live  to  be  past  sixty. 

60.  He  tells  me  that  he  thinks  that  he be  elected. 

61.  They  say  that  they meet  you. 

62.  They  assure  us  that  we find  good  stores  in  Berlin. 

63.  He  says  he  fears  he miss  his  train. 

64.  Wright  says  his  father become  famous. 

65.  He  writes  that  he be  here  to-day. 

66.  Do  you  say  that  you be  present? 

67.  The  book  says  that be  wrong. 

68.  Does  she  say  that  she come? 

69.  I  told  you  that  I not  come. 

70.  I  tell  you  that  she not  come. 

71.  He  says  that  he go  as  a  matter  of  duty. 

72.  John  says  that not  happen  anyway. 

73.  Does  he  say  that  he surely  come? 

74.  Does    John    write    what    he  promise   to  do  in  the 

matter? 

75.    you  be  sure  to  be  there? 

Exercise  47 

Write  five  sentences  in  which  shall  is  used  in  an  independent 
clause,  and  five  in  which  shall  is  used  in  a  dependent  clause. 

Write  five  sentences  in  which  will  is  used  in  an  independent 
clause,  and  five  in  which  will  is  used  in  a  dependent  clause. 

Write  five  interrogative  sentences  in  which  shall  is  used  and 
five  in  which  will  is  used. 

68.  Should  and  Would.  Should  and  would  are  the  past 
tenses  of  shall  and  will,  and  have  corresponding  uses.  Should 


VERBS  77 

is  used  with  /  and  we,  and  would  with  other  subjects,  to  ex- 
press mere  futurity  or  probability.  Would  is  used  with  / 
and  we,  and  should  with  other  subjects,  to  express  conditional 
promise  or  determination  on  the  part  of  the  speaker.  Ex- 
amples : 

Futurity: 

I  should  be  sorry  to  lose  this  book. 

If  we  should  be  afraid  of  the  storm,  we  should  be  foolish. 

It  was  expected  that  they  would  be  here. 

Volition  or  determination : 

If  it  should  occur,  we  would  not  come. 

It  was  promised  that  it  should  not  occur  again. 

He  decided  that  it  should  be  done.  1s 

Should  is  sometimes  used  in  the  sense  of  ought,  to  imply 
duty;  as,  He  should  have  gone  to  her  aid. 

Would  is  often  used  to  indicate  habitual  action;  as,  This 
would  often  occur  when  he  was  preaching. 


Exercise  48 

Justify  the  correct  use  of  should  and  would  in  the  following 
Sentences: 

1.  I  feared  that  they  would  not  come.  . 

2.  He  should  know  his  duty  better  than  that. 

3.  I  should  be  displeased  if  he  would  act  that  way. 

4.  We  should  be  ruined  if  we  did  that. 

5.  You  should  have  seen  his  face. 

6.  We  would  often  take  that  road. 

•     7.    He  said  that  he  would  come  at  once. 

8.  If  that  should  happen,  we  should  not  come. . 

9.  If  you  were  I,  what  should  you  do? 

10.  I  should  see  the  president  of  the  class. 

11.  We  should  have  been  at  the  meeting. 


78  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION 

12.  He  said  that  we  should  have  been  at  the  meeting. 

13.  He  promised  that  he  would  be  at  the  meeting. 

14.  If  I  should  say  so,  he  would  dislike  me. 

15.  Should  he  come,  I  would  go  with  him. 

16.  They  would  usually  stop  at  the  new  hotel. 

17.  What  would  they  do  in  the  city? 

18.  She  asked  if  she  should  write  the  letter. 

19.  She  said  they  would  write  the  letter. 

20.  She  agreed  that  it  would  be  right. 

21.  She  assured  us  that  she  would  attend  to  it. 

Exercise  49 

Fill  in  the  blanks  with  should  or  would   in  the  following 
sentences: 


J.. 

2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 
6. 
7. 
8. 
9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 
me. 
21. 
oo 

j.  iea,i  JL  —         ue  uruwiieu  11  i              gu  swimming. 

I  be  much  pleased  to  meet  him. 
It  was  feared  that  they  not  accept. 

Mary  never  have  known  it. 
He  have  easily  deceived  her. 
They  were  anxious  that  we  not  miss  the  train. 

VERBS  79 

23.  We never  have  come. 

24.     you  think  him  capable  of  such  a  trick? 

25.  I  knew  I not  be  here  on  time. 

26-    they  dare  to  attempt  opposition? 

27.  How you  go  about  it? 

28.  Lincoln,  under  those  circumstances, probable  not  have 

been  elected. 

29.  It have  changed  our  whole  history. 

30.  He  said  that  it have  changed  our  whole  history. 

31.  He  said  he come. 

32.  She  thinks  they not  do  it. 

33.  We  believe  that  we like  to  go  at  once. 

34.  They  say  it be  done  now. 

35.  I  think  I like  to  go. 

Exercise  50 

Write  five  sentences  in  which  should  is  used  independently, 
and  five  in  which  should  is  used  dependently. 

Write  five  sentences  in  which  would  is  used  independently, 
and  five  in  which  would  is  used  dependently. 

Write  five  sentences  in  which  should  is  used  in  questions,  and 
five  in  which  would  is  used  in  questions. 

69.  Use  of  May  and  Might,  Can  and  Could.  May,  with 
its  past  tense,  might,  is  properly  used  to  denote  permission. 
Can,  with  its  past  tense,  could,  refers  to  the  ability  or  possi- 
bility to  do  a  thing.  These  two  words  are  often  confused. 

Exercise  51 

Fill  the  blanks  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  I  go  home? 

2.  we  get  tickets  at  that  store? 

3.  the  mountain  be  climbed? 

4.  we  come  into  your  office? 


80  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

5.  You stay  as  long  as  you  wish. 

6.    you  finish  the  work  in  an  hour? 

7.  How you  say  such  a  thing? 

8.  Several  people use  the  same  book. 

9.  We afford  to  delay  a  while. 

10.    John  go  with  me? 

11.  You often  hear  the  noise. 

12.  What not  be  done  in  a  week? 

13.  That be  true,  but  it not  be  relied  on. 

14.  What he  do  to  prevent  it? 

15.  When we  hand  in  the  work? 

70.  Participles  and  Gerunds.     The  past  participle  has 
already  been  mentioned  as  one  of  the  principal  parts  of  the 
verb.     Generally,  the  participles  are  those  forms  of  the  verb 
that  are  used  adjectively;  as,  seeing,  having  seen,  being  seent 
having  been  seen,  seen,  playing,  having  played,  etc.     In  the 
following  sentences  note  that  the  verb  form  in  each  case 
modifies  a  substantive:  He,  having  been  invited  to  dine,  came 
early,  John,  being  sick,  could  not  come.     The  verb  form  in 
all  these  cases  is  called  a  participle,  and  must  be  used  in  con- 
nection with  either  a  nominative  or  objective  case  of  a  noun  or 
pronoun. 

The  Gerund  is  the  same  as  the  participle  in  its  forms,  but 
differs  in  that,  while  the  participle  is  always  used  adjectively, 
the  gerund  is  always  used  substantively ;  as,  /  told  of  his  winning 
the  race,  After  his  asserting  it,  I  believe  the  statement. 

71.  Misuses  of  Participles  and  Gerunds. 

1.  A  participle  should  not  be  used  unless  it  stands  in  a 
grammatical  and  logical  relation  to  some  substantive  that 
is  present  in  the  sentence.  Failure  to  follow  this  rule  leads 
to  the  error  known  as  the  "  dangling  participle."  It  is  wrong 
to  say,  The  dish  was  broken,  resulting  from  its  fall,  because 
resulting  does  not  stand  in  grammatical  relation  to  any  word 
in  the  sentence.  But  it  would  be  right  to  say,  The  dish  was 


VERBS  81 

broken  as  a  result  of  its  fall.     Examine,  also,  the  following 
examples: 

Wrong:  I  spent  a  week  in  Virginia,  followed  by  a  week  at  Atlantic 
City. 

Right:  I  spent  a  week  in  Virginia,  following  it  by  a  week  at  Atlantic 
City. 

Right :  I  spent  a  week  in  Virginia,  and  then  a  week  at  Atlantic  City. 

2.  A  participle  should  not  stand  at  the  beginning  of  a 
sentence  or  principal  clause  unless  it  belongs  to  the  subject 
of  that  sentence  or  clause.     Compare  the  following: 

Wrong:  Having  been  sick,  it  was  decided  to  remain  at  home. 
Right :  Having  been  sick,  I  decided  to  remain  at  home. 

3.  A  participle  preceded  by  thus  should  not  be  used  unless 
it  modifies  the  subject  of  the  preceding  verb.     Compare  the 
following: 

Wrong:  He  had  to  rewrite  several  pages,  thus  causing  him  a  great 
deal  of  trouble. 

Right:  He  had  to  rewrite  several  pages,  and  was  thus  caused  a 
great  deal  of  trouble. 

Right:  He  had  to  rewrite  several  pages,  thus  experiencing  a  great 
deal  of  trouble. 

4.  The  gerund  is  often  used  as  the  object  of  a  preposition, 
and  frequently  has  a  noun  or  pronoun  modifier.     Owing  to 
confusion  between  the  gerund  and  the  participle,  and  to  the 
failure  to  realize  that  the  gerund  can  only  be  used  substantively, 
the  objective  case  of  a  modifying  noun  or  pronoun  is  often 
wrongly  used  before  the  gerund.     A  substantive  used  with  the 
gerund  should  always  be  in  the  possessive  case.     Say,  /  heard 
of  John's  coming,  not,  /  heard  of  John  coming. 

5.  When  a  gerund  and  a  preposition  are  used,  the  phrase 
should  be  in  logical  and  immediate  connection  with  the  sub- 
stantive it  modifies,  and  the  phrase  should  never  introduce  a 
sentence  unless  it  logically  belongs  to  the  subject  of  that 


82  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

sentence.  Exception:  When  the  gerund  phrase  denotes  a 
general  action,  it  may  be  used  without  grammatical  connection 
to  the  sentence;  as,  In  traveling,  good  drinking  water  is  essential. 
Compare  the  following  wrong  and  right;  forms: 

Wrong:  After  seeing  his  mistake,  a  new  start  was  made. 
Right :  After  seeing  his  mistake,  he  made  a  new  start. 

Wrong:  By  writing  rapidly,  the  work  can  be  finished. 
Right:  By  writing  rapidly,  you  can  finish  the  work. 

Wrong:  In  copying  the  exercise,  a  mistake  was  made. 
Right:  In  copying  the  exercise,  I  made  a  mistake. 

Exercise  52 

In  the  following  sentences,  choose  the  proper  form  of  the  sub- 
stantive from  those  italicized: 

1.  He  spoke  of  John  John's  coming  down. 

2.  The  idea  of  his  him  singing  is  absurd. 

3.  Do  you  remember  me  my  speaking  about  it  ? 

4.  What  is  the  use  of  you  your  reading  that? 

5.  He  his  him  being  arrested  was  a  sufficient  disgrace. 

6.  He  him  his  being  now  of  age,  sold  the  farm. 

7.  He  him  his  selling  it  was  very  unexpected. 

8.  You  should  have  heard  him  his  telling  the  story. 

9.  You  should  have  heard  his  him  telling  of  the  story. 

10.  To  think  of  them  they  their  having  been  seen  there! 

11.  What  is  the  object  of  Mary  Mary's  studying  French? 

12.  It  its  being  John  was  a  great  surprise. 

13.  What  is  the  use  of  them  they  their  talking  so  much? 

14.  John  John's  going  to  school  takes  all  his  evenings. 

15.  The  beauty  of  James  James's  writing  got  him  the  position. 

16.  He  had  heard  about  me  my  coming  to-day. 

17.  John  John's  coming  was  a  surprise. 


VERBS  83 

Exercise  53 

Wherever  participles  or  gerunds  are  improperly  used  in 
the  following  sentences,  correct  the  sentences  so  as  to  avoid  such 
impropriety.  See  §107  for  rule  as  to  punctuation: 

1.  Having  assented  to  your  plan,  you  try  to  hold  me  responsible. 

2.  He  asked  him  to  make  the  plans,  owing  to  the  need  of  an 
experienced  architect. 

3.  It  was  decided  to  send  his  son  abroad  being  anxious  for  his 
health. 

4.  On  hearing  that,  a  new  plan  was  made. 

5.  Moving  slowly  past  our  window,  we  saw  a  great  load  of  lumber. 

6.  Intending  to  go  to  the  theater,  the  whole  afternoon  was  spent 
in  town. 

7.  He  was  taken  into  the  firm,  thus  gaining  an  increased  income. 

8.  Not  having  the  lesson  prepared,  he  told  John  to  stay  after  class. 

9.  No  letter  was  written  for  more  than  a  week,  causing  consider- 
able anxiety. 

10.  Expecting  us  to  come,  we  disappointed  him. 

11.  After  telling  me  the  story,  I  left  him. 

12.  By  reading  aloud  to  the  class,  they  do  not  gain  much. 

13.  He  had  to  wait  several  hours  for  the  train,  thus  causing  him 
to  lose  a  great  deal  of  valuable  time. 

14.  After  listening  to  his  lecture  for  an  hour  he  became  tiresome. 

15.  We   listened  attentively  to  his  lecture,   thus  showing  our 
interest. 

72.  Infinitives.  The  Infinitives  are  formed  by  the  word 
to  and  some  part  of  the  verb  or  of  the  verb  and  auxiliary. 
For  see  and  play  as  model  verbs,  the  infinitives  are  as  follows: 

PRESENT   ACTIVE  PRESENT   PASSIVE 

to  see  to  be  seen 

to  play  to  be  played 

PRESENT   PERFECT  ACTIVE  PRESENT   PERFECT   PASSIVE 

to  have  seen  to  have  been  seen 

to  have  played  to  have  been  played 


84  PRACTICAL   GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

The  word  to  is  frequently  omitted.  In  general,  other  verbs 
follow  the  same  endings  and  forms  as  do  the  infinitives  above. 

It  is  necessary  to  know  the  difference  between  the  two  tenses, 
since  the  misuse  of  tenses  leads  to  a  certain  class  of  errors. 

73.  Sequence  of  Infinitive  Tenses.  The  wrong  tense  of 
the  infinitive  is  frequently  used.  The  following  rules  should 
be  observed: 

1.  If  the  action  referred  to  by  the  infinitive  is  of  the  same  time 
or  of  later  time  than  that  indicated  by  the  predicate  verb,  the  present 
infinitive  should  be  used. 

2.  When  the  action  referred  to  by  the  infinitive  is  regarded  as 
completed  at  the  time  indicated  by  the  predicate  verb,  the  perfect 
infinitive  should  be  used. 

Examine  the  following  examples: 

Wrong:  /  should  have  liked  to  have  gone. 

Right :  /  should  have  liked  to  go  (same  or  later  time). 

Right:  /  should  like  to  have  gone  (earlier  time). 

Wrong :  It  was  bad  to  have  been  discovered. 

Right :  It  is  bad  to  have  been  discovered  (earlier  time). 

Right:  It  was  bad  to  be  discovered  (same  or  later  time). 

Right :  She  did  not  believe  her  son  to  have  committed  the  crime  (earlier 
time). 

Right :  When  he  died,  he  believed  himself  to  have  been  defeated  for  the 
office  (earlier  time.) 

Exercise  54 

In  the  following  sentences  choose  the  proper  form  from  those 
italicized: 

1.  I  was  sorry  to  have  heard  to  hear  of  John's  death. 

2.  Should  you  have  been  willing  to  go  to  have  gone  with  us? 

3.  The  game  was  intended  to  be  played  to  have  been  played  yes- 
terday. 

4.  I  intended  to  write  to  have  written  long  ago. 

5.  He  wished  to  have  met  to  meet  you. 


VERBS  85 

6.  I  should  have  liked  to  meet  to  have  met  you. 

7.  Mary  was  eager  to  have  gone  to  go. 

8.  Nero  was  seen  to  have  fiddled  to  fiddle  while  'Rome  burned. 

9.  Nero  is  said  to  have  fiddled  to  fiddle  while  Rome  burned. 

10.  This  was  to  be  done  to  have  been  done  yesterday. 

11.  They  agreed  to  finish  to  have  finished  it  yesterday. 

12.  He  was  willing  to  sing  to  have  sung  alone. 

13.  He  expected  to  have  spoken  to  speak  here  to-morrow, 

14.  The  Civil  War  is  said  to  cause  to  have  caused  more  loss  of  life 
than  any  other  war. 

15.  Blackstone  is  said  to  have  failed  to  fail  at  the  practice  of  law. 

16.  It  would  have  been  hard  to  accomplish  to  have  accomplished 
that  result. 

17.  He  was  foolish  enough  to  have  spoiled  to  spoil  six  negatives. 

18.  I  wanted  to  have  attended  to  attend  the  convention. 

19.  It  would  be  terrible  to  be  lost  to  have  been  lost  in  the  forest. 

20.  We  were  asked  to  have  waited  to  wait. 

21.  I  am  eager  to  have  seen  to  see  it. 

22.  1  am  pleased  to  meet  to  have  met  you. 

74.  Split  Infinitives.  In  the  sentence,  care  should  be 
taken  to  avoid  as  much  as  possible  the  inserting  of  an  adverb 
or  an  adverbial  modifier  between  the  parts  of  the  infinitive. 
This  error  is  called  the  "split  infinitive."  Compare  the 
following: 

Bad :  He  seemed  to  easily  learn. 
Good :  He  seemed  to  learn  easily. 

Bad:  He  is  said  to  have  rapidly  run  along  the  street. 
Good:  He  is  said  to  have  run  rapidly  along  the  street. 


Exercise  55 

Correct  the  following  split  infinitives: 

1.  She  is  known  to  have  hurriedly  read  the  note. 

2.  Mary  tried  to  quickly  call  help. 


86  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION 

3.  He  was  asked  to  slowly  read  the  next  paragraph. 

4.  John  attempted  to  rudely  break  into  the  conversation. 

5.  The  plan  was  to  secretly  destroy  the  documents. 

6.  His  policy  was  to  never  offend. 

7.  He  wished  to  in  this  way  gain  friends. 

8.  He  proposed  to  greatly  decrease  his  son's  allowance. 

75.  Agreement  of  Verb  in  Clauses.  In  a  compound 
predicate,  the  parts  of  the  predicate  should  agree  in  tense; 
past  tense  should  follow  past  tense,  and  perfect  tense  follow 
perfect  tense.  Examine  the  following: 

Wrong:  He  has  tried  to  do,  and  really  did  everything  possible  to 
stop  his  son. 

Right :  He  has  tried  to  do,  and  really  has  done  everything  possible 
to  stop  his  son. 

Right :  He  tried  to  do,  and  really  did  everything  possible  to  stop  his 
son. 

Wrong :  I  hoped  and  have  worked  to  gain  this  recognition. 

Right:  I  hoped  and  worked  to  gain  this  recognition. 

Right:  I  have  hoped  and  have  worked  to  gain  this  recognition. 


Exercise  56 

Correct  the  following  sentences: 

1.  I  went  last  week  and  have  gone  again  this  week. 

2.  I  have  heard  of  his  being  here,  but  not  saw  him. 

3.  I  saw  John,  but  I  have  not  seen  Henry. 

4.  He  desired  to  see  John,  but  has  not  wished  to  see  Henry. 

5.  John  was  sent  for,  but  has  not  yet  arrived. 

6.  I  endeavored  to  find  a  way  of  avoiding  that,  but  have  not 
succeeded. 

7.  I  have  never  seen  its  superior,  and,  in  fact,  never  saw  its  equal. 

8.  She  has  succeeded  in  getting  his  promise,  but  did  not  succeed 
in  getting  his  money. 

9.  I  hoped  and  have  prayed  for  your  coming. 


VERBS  87 

10.  I  have  believed  and  usually  taught  that  theory. 

11.  I  intended  to  and  have  endeavored  to  finish  the  work. 

12.  No  one  has  wished  to  see  so  much  and  saw  so  little  of  the 
world  as  I. 

13.  He  has  gained  the  favor  of  the  king  and  was  sent  to  Italy. 

14.  We  have  needed  you  and  did  our  best  to  find  you. 

76.  Omission  of  the  Verb  or  Parts  of  the  Verb.  The  verb 
or  some  of  its  parts  are  orten  omitted.  This  omission  some- 
times makes  the  sentence  ungrammatical  or  doubtful  in  its 
meaning. 

/  like  him  better  than  John.  This  sentence  may  have  the 
meaning  shown  in  either  of  its  following  corrected  forms :  /  like 
him  better  than  John  does,  or  /  like  him  better  than  I  like  John. 

As  a  matter  of  good  usage,  the  verb  or  any  other  part 
of  speech  should  be  repeated  wherever  its  omission  either 
makes  the  sentence  ambiguous  or  gives  it  an  incomplete  sound 

Bad :  He  was  told  to  go  where  he  ought  not. 
Good :  He  was  told  to  go  where  he  ought  not  to  go. 
Good:  He  was  told  to  go  where  he  should  not  go. 

Exercise  57 

Correct  the  following  sentences: 

1.  I  admire  Mary  more  than  John. 

2.  I  think  she  is  older  than  John. 

3.  He  should  have  succeeded  in  gaining  the  end  he  tried. 

4.  I  asked  him  to  do  what  I  should  not  have. 

5.  I  did  what  I  ought  not. 

6.  We  wish  him  better  luck  than  Mary. 

7.  We  want  to  see  him  more  than  Henry. 

8.  I  should  hate  him  worse  than  you. 

9.  He  wanted  me  to  do  what  I  didn't  care  to. 

10.  You  may,  as  you  please,  do  it  or  not. 

11.  She  may  go  if  she  wishes  or  not. 

12.  We  think  of  you  oftener  than  mother. 


88  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

77.    Model  Conjugations  of  the  Verbs  To  Be  and  To  See. 

CONJUGATION   OF  TO   BE 
PRINCIPAL  PARTS:   AM,  WAS,  BEEN 

INDICATIVE  MODE 

PRESENT  TENSE 
Person     Singular  Number  Plural  Number 

1.  I  am  We  are 

2.  *  Thou  art  (you  are)  You  are 

3.  He  is  They  are 

PAST  TENSE 

1.  I  was  We  were 

2.  Thou  wast  or  wert  You  were 

3.  He  was  They  were 

PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE 
(Have  with  the  past  participle,  been.)      , 

1.  I  have  been  We  have  been 

2.  Thou  hast  been  You  have  been 

3.  He  has  been  They  have  been 

PAST  PERFECT  TENSE 
(Had  with  the  past  participle,  been.) 

1.  I  had  been  We  had  been 

2.  Thou  hadst  bem  You  had  been 

3.  He  had  been-  They  had  been 

*The  forms,  thou  art,  thou  wast,  thou  hast,  etc.,  are  the  proper 
forms  in  the  second  person  singular,  but  customarily  the  forms  of  the 
second  person  plural,  you  are,  you  were,  you  have,  etc.,  are  used  also  in 
the  second  person  singular.  These  distinct  second  person  singular 
forms  will  be  used  throughout  the  model  conjugations. 


VERBS  89 

FUTURE  TENSE 

(SJiall  or  will  with  the  present  infinitive,  be.*) 
Person     Singular  Number  Plural  Number 

1.  I  shall  be  We  shall  be 

2.  Thou  shalt  be  You  shatt  be 

3.  He  shall  be  They  shall  be 

FUTURE  PERFECT  TENSE 
(Shall  or  will  with  the  perfect  infinitive,  have  been."f) 

1.  I  will  have  been  We  will  have  been 

2.  Thou  wilt  have  been  You  will  have  been 

3.  He  will  have  been  They  will  have  been 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE 
(Generally  follows  if,  though,  lest,  although,  etc.    See  §  59.) 

PRESENT  TENSE 

1.  (If)  I  be  (If)  we  be 

2.  (If)  thou  be  (If)  you  be 

3.  (If)  he  be  (If)  they  be 

PAST  TENSE 

1.  (If)  I  were  (If)  we  were 

2.  (If)  thou  were  (If)  you  were 

3.  (If)  he  were  (If)  they  were 

PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE 
(Have,  unchanged,  with  the  past  participle,  been.) 

1.  (If)  I  have  been  (If)  we  have  been 

2.  (If)  thou  have  been  (If)  you  have  been 

3.  (If)  he  have  been  (If)  they  have  been 

*To  determine  when  to  use  shall  and  when  to  use  will  in  the 
future  and  future  perfect  tenses,  see  §§  65,  66,  and  67.  In  these 
model  conjugations  the  forms  of  shall  are  given  with  the  future  and 
the  forms  of  will  with  the  future  perfect. 

t  See  Note  under  Future  Tense. 


90  PRACTICAL   GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

PAST  PERFECT  TENSE 

(Had,  unchanged,  with  the  past  participle,  been.) 
Person     Singular  Number  Plural  Number 

1.  (If)  I  had  been  (If)  we  had  been 

2.  (If)  thou  had  been  (If)  you  had  been 

3.  (If)  he  had  been  (If)  they  had  been 

FUTURE  TENSE 
(Shall  or  will,  unchanged,  with  present  infinitive  be*) 

1.  (If)  I  shatt  be  (If)  we  shall  be 

2.  (If)  thou  shatt  be  (If)  you  shatt  be 

3.  (If)  he  shall  be  (If)  they  thatt  be 

FUTURE  PERFECT  TENSE 
(Shatt  or  will,  unchanged,  with  the  perfect  infinitive,  have  been*) 

1.  (If)  I  shall  have  been  (If)  we  shatt  have  been 

2.  (If)  thou  shall  have  been  (If)  you  shall  have  been 

3.  (If)  he  shall  have  been  (If)  they  shatt  have  been 

POTENTIAL  MODE  f 

PRESENT  TENSE 
(May,  can,  or  must,  with  the  present  infinitive,  be.) 

1.  I  may,  can,  or  must  be  We  may,  can,  or  must  be 

2.  Thou  mayst,  canst,  or  must  be  You  may,  can,  or  must  be 

3.  He  may,  can,  or  must  be  They  may,  can,  or  must  be 

*See  Note  to  Future  Indicative. 

fThe  distinct  potential  mode  is  no  longer  used  by  many  authorities 
on  grammar,  and  the  potential  forms  are  regarded  as  of  the  indicative 
mode.  It  has,  however,  been  thought  best  to  use  it  in  these  model 
conjugations. 

As  to  when  to  use  the  different  auxiliaries  of  the  potential  mode  see 
§§  68  and  69.  The  conjugation  with  must  (or  ought  to)  is  sometimes 
called  the  OBLIGATIVE  MODE.  The  conjugation  with  should  or  would 
is  sometimes  called  the  CONDITIONAL  MODE. 


VERBS  91 

PAST  TENSE 

{Might,  could,  would,  or  should,  with  the  present  infinitive,  be.) 
Person    Singular  Number  Plural  Number 

1.  I  might,  could,  would,  or  should    We  might,  could,  would,  or  should 

be  be 

2.  Thou  mightst,  couldst,  wouldst,    You  might,  could,  would,  or  should 

or  shouldst  be  be 

3.  He    might,    could,  would,  or    They  might,  could,  would,  or  should 

should  be  be 

PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE 

(May,  can,  or  must,  with  the  perfect  infinitive,  have  been.    For 
forms  substitute  have  been  for  be  in  the  present  potential.) 

PAST  PERFECT  TENSE 

(Might,  could,  would,  or  should,  with  the  perfect  infinitive  have  been. 
For  forms  substitute  have  been  for  be  in  the  past  potential.) 


IMPERATIVE  MODE* 

Be 
INFINITIVE  MODE 

PRESENT  TENSE  PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE 

To  be  To  have  been 

PARTICIPLES 

PRESENT  TENSE  PERFECT  TENSE 

Being  Having  been 

GERUNDS 

(Same  as  participles) 

*  The  imperative  is  the  same  in  both  singular  and  plural. 


92  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION 

CONJUGATION   OF  TO   SEE 
PRINCIPAL  PARTS:  SEE,  SAW,  SEEN 

INDICATIVE  MODE 
PRESENT  TENSE — ACTIVE  VOICE 

Simple 

Person     Singular  Number  Plural  Number 

1.  I  see  We  see 

2.  Thou  seest  You  see 

3.  He  sees  They  see 

Emphatic 

1.  I  do  see  We  do  see 

2.  Thou  dost  see  You  do  see 

3.  He  does  see  They  do  see 

Progressive 

1.  I  am  seeing  We  are  seeing 

2.  Thou  art  seeing  You  are  seeing 

3.  He  is  seeing  They  are  seeing 

PRESENT  TENSE — PASSIVE  VOICE 

Simple 

1.  I  am  seen  We  are  seen 

2.  Thou  art  seen  You  are  seen 

3.  He  is  seen  They  are  seen 

Progressive 

1.  I  am  being  seen  We  are  being  seen 

2.  Thou  ar£  being  seen  You  are  6eina  seen 

3.  He  ts  fcewgr  seen  They  are  fceiny  seen 

PAST  TENSE — ACTIVE  VOICE 

Simple 

1.  I  saw  We  saw 

2.  Thou  sawest  You  saw 

3.  He  saw)  They  saw 


VERBS  93 

Emphatic 

Person     Singular  Number  Plural  Number 

1.  I  did  see  We  did  see 

2.  Thou  didst  see  You  did  see 

3.  He  did  see  They  did  see     . 

Progressive 

1.  I  was  seeing  We  were  seeing 

2.  Thou  wast  or  wer£  seeing  You  were  seeing 

3.  He  was  seeing  They  were 


PAST  TENSE  —  PASSIVE  VOICE 
Simple 

1.  I  was  seen  We  were  seen 

2.  Thou  wasZ  or  wert  seen  You  were  seen 

3.  He  was  seen  They  were  seen 

Progressive 

1.  I  was  being  seen  We  were  being  seen 

2.  Thou  wert  or  wast  being  seen  You  were  being  seen 

3.  He  was  being  seen  They  were  being  seen 

PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE  —  ACTIVE  VOICE 

Simple 
(Substitute  seen  for  been  in  the  present  perfect  indicative  of  to  be.) 

Progressive 

(Substitute  been  seeing  for  been  in  the  present  perfect  indicative 
of  to  be.) 

PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE  —  PASSIVE  VOICE 

(Substitute  6een  seen  for  been  in  the  present  perfect  indicative  of 
to  be.) 

PAST  PERFECT  TENSE  —  ACTIVE  VOICE 

Simple 
(Substitute  seen  for  freen  in  the  past  perfect  indicative  of  to  be.) 

Progressive 
(Substitute  6een  seeing  for  fceen  in  the  past  perfect  indicative  of  to  be.) 


94  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION 

PAST  PERFECT  TENSE — PASSIVE  VOICE 
(Substitute  been  seen  for  been  in  the  past  perfect  indicative  of  to  be.) 

FUTURE  TENSE — ACTIVE  VOICE 

Simple 
(Substitute  see  for  b    n  the  future  indicative  of  to  be.) 


(Substitute  be  seeing  for  be  in  the  future  indicative  of  to  be.) 

FUTURE  TENSE — PASSIVE  VOICE 
(Substitute  be  seen  for  be  in  the  future  indicative  of  to  be.) 

FUTURE  PERFECT  TENSE — ACTIVE  VOICE 

Simple 

(Substitute  have  seen  for  have  been  in  the  future  perfect  indicative 
Of  to  be.) 


(Substitute  have  been  seeing  for  have  been  in  the  future  perfect  in- 
dicative of  to  be.) 

FUTURE  PERFECT  TENSE — PASSIVE  VOICE 

(Substitute  have  been  seen  for  have  been  in  the  future  perfect  in- 
dicative of  to  be.) 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE 

PRESENT  TENSE — ACTIVE  VOICE 

Simple 
Person     Singular  Number  Plural  Number 

1.  (If)  I  see  (If)  we  see 

2.  (If)  thou  see  (If)  you  see 

3.  (If)  he  see  (If)  they  see 


VERBS 


95 


Person     Singular  Number 

1.  (If)  I  do  see 

2.  (If)  thou  do  see 

3.  (If)  he  do  see 

1.  (If)  I  be  seeing 

2.  (If)  thou  be  seeing 

3.  (If)  he  be  seeing 


Emphatic 


Progressive 


Plural  Number 
(If)  we  do  see 
(If)  you  do  see 
(If)  they  do  see 

(If)  we  be  seeing 
(If)  you  be  seeing 
(If)  they  be  seeing 


PRESENT  TENSE — PASSIVE  VOICE 

1.  (If)  I  be  seen  (If)  we  be  seen 

2.  (If)  thou  be  seen  (If)  you  be  seen 

3.  (If)  he  be  seen  (If)  they  be  seen 


PAST  TENSE  —  ACTIVE  VOICE 


1.  (If)  I  saw 

2.  (If)  thou  saw; 

3.  (If)  he  saw; 

1.  (If)  I  did  see 

2.  (If)  thou  did  see 

3.  (If)  he  did  see 


1.  (If)  I  were  seeing 

2.  (If)  thou  were  seeing 

3.  (If)  he  were  seeing 


Simple 


Emphatic 


(If)  we  saw 
(If)  you  saw; 
(If)  they  saw; 

(If)  we  did  see 
(If)  you  did  see 
(If)  they  did  see 


(If)  we  were  seeing 
(If)  you  were  seeing 
(If)  they  were  seeing 


PAST  TENSE — PASSIVE  VOICE 

1.  (If)  I  were  seen 

2.  (If)  thou  were  seen 

3.  (If) 


(If)  we  were  seen 
(If)  you  were  seen 
(If)  they  were  seen 


96  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION 

PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE — ACTIVE  VOICE 

Simple 
(Substitute  seen  for  been  in  the  present  perfect  subjunctive  of  to  be.) 

Progressive 

(Substitute  been  seeing  for  been  in  the  present  perfect  subjunctive 
of  to  be.) 

PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE — PASSIVE  VOICE 

(Substitute  been  seen  for  been  in  the  present  perfect  subjunctive  of 
to  be.) 

PAST  PERFECT  TENSE — ACTIVE  VOICE 

Simple 
(Substitute  seen  for  been  in  the  past  perfect  subjunctive  of  to  be.) 

Progressive 

(Substitute  been  seeing  for  been  in  the  past  perfect  subjunctive  of 
to  be.) 

PAST  PERFECT  TENSE — PASSIVE  VOICE 

(Substitute  been  seen  for  been  in  the  past  perfect  subjunctive  of 
to  be.) 

FUTURE  TENSE — ACTIVE  VOICE 

Simple 
(Substitute  see  for  be  in  the  future  subjunctive  of  to  be.) 

Progressive 
(Substitute  be  seeing  for  be  in  the  future  subjunctive  of  to  be.) 


FUTURE  TENSE — PASSIVE  VOICE 
(Substitute  be  seen  for  be  in  the  future  subjunctive  of  to  be.) 


VERBS  97 

FUTURE  PERFECT — ACTIVE  VOICE 

Simple 
(Substitute  seen  for  been  in  the  future  perfect  subjunctive  of  to  be.) 

Progressive 

(Substitute  been  seeing  for  been  in  the  future  perfect  subjunctive 
of  to  be.) 

FUTURE  PERFECT — PASSIVE  VOICE 
(Substitute  been  seen  for  the  future  perfect  subjunctive  of  to  be.) 


POTENTIAL  MODE 
PRESENT  TENSE — ACTIVE  VOICE 

Simple 
(Substitute  see  for  be  in  the  present  potential  of  to  be.) 


(Substitute  be  seeing  for  be  in  the  present  potential  of  to  be.) 

PRESENT  TENSE — PASSIVE  VOICE 

Simple 
(Substitute  be  seen  for  be  in  the  present  potential  of  to  be.) 

PAST  TENSE — ACTIVE  VOICE 

Simple 
(Substitute  see  for  be  in  the  past  potential  of  to  be.) 

Progressive 
(Substitute  be  seeing  for  be  in  the  past  potential  of  to  be.) 

PAST  TENSE — PASSIVE  VOICE 
(Substitute  be  seen  for  be  in  the  past  potential  of  to  be.) 


98  PRACTICAL   GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE — ACTIVE  VOICE 

Simple 
(Substitute  have  seen  for  be  in  the  present  potential  of  to  be.) 

Progressive 
(Substitute  have  been  seeing  for  be  in  the  present  potential  of  to  be.) 

PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE — PASSIVE  VOICE 
(Substitute  have  been,  seen  for  be  in  the  present  potential  of  to  be.) 

PAST  PERFECT  TENSE — ACTIVE  VOICE 

Simple 
(Substitute  have  seen  for  be  in  the  past  potential  of  to  be.) 


(Substitute  have  been  seeing  for  be  in  the  past  potential  of  to  be.) 

PAST  PERFECT  TENSE — PASSIVE  VOICE 
(Substitute  have  been  seen  for  be  in  the  past  potential  of  to  be.) 

IMPERATIVE  MODE 

ACTIVE   VOICE 

Simple 

see. 

Emphatic 
do  see. 

Progressive 
be  seeing. 

PASSIVE  VOICE 
be  seen 


VERBS  99 


INFINITIVE  MODE 

PRESENT  TENSE — ACTIVE  VOICE 
Simple 
to  see. 


to  be  seeing. 

PRESENT  TENSE — PASSIVE  VOICE 

Simple 
to  be  seen 

PERFECT  TENSE — ACTIVE  VOICE 

Simple 
to  have  seen. 

Progressive 
to  have  been  seeing. 

PERFECT  TENSE — PASSIVE  VOICE 

Simple 
to  have  been  seen. 

PARTICIPLES 
PRESENT  TENSE — ACTIVE  VOICE 


PRESENT  TENSE — PASSIVE  VOICE 
being  seen 

PAST  TENSE — PASSIVE  VOICE  * 

seen 


There  is  no  past  participle  in  the  active  voice. 


100         PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

PERFECT  TENSE — ACTIVE  VOICE 

Simple 
having  seen 

Progressive 
having  been  seeing 

PERFECT  TENSE — PASSIVE  VOICE 
having  been  seen 

GERUNDS 

PRESENT  TENSE — ACTIVE  VOICE 
seeing 

PRESENT  TENSE — PASSIVE  VOICE 
being  seen 

) 
PERFECT  TENSE — ACTIVE  VOICE 

having  seen 

PERFECT  TENSE — PASSIVE  VOICE 
having  been  seen 


CHAPTER  VI 

CONNECTIVES:    RELATIVE  PRONOUNS,  RELATIVE  ADVERBS, 
CONJUNCTIONS,  AND  PREPOSITIONS 

78.  Independent  and   Dependent  Clauses.     A  sentence 
may  consist  of  two  or  more  independent  clauses,  or  it  may 
consist  of  one  principal  clause  and  one  or  more  dependent 
clauses. 

Independent  clauses  are  joined  by  conjunctions;  such  as, 
hence,  but,  and,  although,  etc. 

Dependent  clauses  are  joined  to  the  sentence  by  relative 
adverbs;  sucji  as,  where,  when,  etc.,  or  by  relative  pronouns; 
as,  who,  what,  etc.  These  dependent  clauses  may  have  the 
same  office  in  the  sentence  as  nouns,  pronouns,  adjectives, 
or  adverbs.  (See  §  7.) 

79.  Case    and   Number   of    Relative   and    Interrogative 
Pronouns.     Failure  to  use  the  proper  case  and  number  of 
the    relative    pronouns    has    already    been    touched    upon 
(see  §29),  but  a  further  mention  of  this  fault  may  well  be 
made  here. 

The  relative  pronoun  has  other  offices  in  the  sentence 
thai?  that  of  connecting  the  dependent  and  principal  'clauses. 
It  may  serve  as  a  subject  or  an  object  in  the  clause.  The  sen- 
tence, I  wonder  whom  will  be  chosen,  is  wrong,  because  the  rela- 
tive here  is  the  subject  of  will  be  chosen,  not  the  object  of 
wonder,  and  should  have  the  nominative  form  who.  Corrected, 
it  reads,  /  wonder  who  will  be  chosen.  Examine  the  following 
sentences: 

Wrong:  We  know  who  we  mean. 
Right :  We  know  whom  we  mean. 
8  101 


102         PRACTICE  'GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

Wrong :  You  may  g^ye  it-  tu  whoever  you  wish. 
Right :  You  may  give  it  to  whomever  you  wish. 

Wrong:  Do  you  know  whom  it  is? 

Right:  Do  you  know  who  it  is?     (Attribute  complement.) 

Wrong:  Everybody  who  were  there  were  disappointed.  (Disagree- 
ment  in  number.) 

Right :  Everybody  who  was  there  was  disappointed. 

The  relative  pronoun  takes  the  case  required  by  the  clause 
it  introduces,  not  the  case  required  by  any  word  preceding  it. 
Thus,  the  sentence,  He  gave  it  to  who  Jiad  the  dearest  right.,  is 
correct,  because  who  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  had,  and  there- 
fore in  the  nominative  case.  Give  it  to  whomever  they  name,  is 
right,  because  whomever  is  the  object  of  they  name. 

Errors  in  the  use  of  interrogative  pronouns  are  made  in  the 
same  way  as  in  the  use  of  the  relatives.  The  interrogative 
pronoun  has  other  functions  besides  making  an  interrogation. 
It  serves  also  as  the  subject  or  object  in  the  sentence.  Care 
must  be  taken,  then,  to  use  the  proper  case.  Say,  Whom  are 
you  looking  for?  not,  Who  are  you  looking  for? 

NOTE.  Some  writers  justify  the  use  of  who  in  sentences  like  the 
last  one  on  the  ground  that  it  is  an  idiom.  When,  as  in  this  book, 
the  object  is  training  in  grammar,  it  is  deemed  better  to  adhere  to 
the  strictly  grammatical  form. 

Exercise  58 

In  the  following  sentences,   choose  the  proper  forms  from 

those  italicized: 

( • 

1.  Who  whom  do  you  wish  to  see? 

2.  You  will  please  write  out  the  name  of  whoever  whomever  you 
want. 

3.  I  saw  who  whom  was  there. 

4.  Who  whom  was  it  you  saw? 

5.  Who  whom  did  you  see? 


CONNECTIVES  103 

6.  John  did  not  know  whom  who  to  ask. 

7.  Why  did  he  not  ask  whomever  whoever  was  there? 

8.  Who  whom  can  tell  the  difference? 

9.  Give  it  to  whoever  whomever  you  please. 

10.  None  of  those  who  were  was  wanted  was  were  there. 

11.  The  one  of  those  who  were  was  wanted  was  not  there. 

12.  He  is  one  of  those  fellows  who  are  is  always  joking. 

13.  Whom  who  was  called  "  The  Rail  Splitter?  " 

14.  Do  you  not  know  whom  who  it  was? 

15.  That  is  one  of  the  birds  that  is  are  very  rare. 

16.  One  of  the  books  which  was  were  brought  was  one  hundred 
years  old. 

17.  I  am  not  among  those  who  whom  were  was  there. 

18.  Only  one  of  the  men  who  were  was  on  board  survived. 

19.  Everyone  else  who  was  were  there  was  were  lost. 

20.  I  am  the  one  of  the  three  men  who  is  am  are  guilty. 

21.  He  was  chosen  one  of  the  four  speakers  who  was  were  to  speak 
on  Commencement  Day. 

22.  It  was  one  of  the  books  which  were  was  being  sought  by  the 
librarian. 

23.  Give  it  to  one  of  the  men  who  whom  is  found  there. 

24.  To  who  whom  did  you  give  it? 

25.  It  was  for  whomever  whoever  was  present. 

26.  Ask  whomever  whoever  is  nearest  the  door. 


80.  Conjunctive  or  Relative  Adverbs.  It  is  better  to  use 
a  when  clause  only  in  the  subordinate  part  of  the  sentence, 
to  state  the  time  of  an  event.  Compare  the  following: 

Bad:  He  was  turning  the  corner,  when  suddenly  he  saw  a  car 
approaching. 

Good:  When  he  was  turning  the  corner,  he  suddenly  saw  a  car 
approaching. 

Bad:  When  the  news  of  the  fire  came,  it  was  still  in  the  early 
morning. 

Good:  The  news  of  the  fire  came  when  it  was  still  in  the  early 
morning. 


104          PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION 

81.  Do  not  use  a  when  or  a  where  clause  in  defining  a 
subject  or  in  place  of  a  predicate  noun. 

Bad:  Commencement  is  when  one  formally  completes  his  school 
course. 

Good:  Commencement  is  the  formal  completion  of  one's  school 
course. 

*   Bad:  Astronomy  is  where  one  studies  about  the  stars. 
Good :  Astronomy  is  the  study  of  the  stars. 

82.  So,  then,  and  also,  the  conjunctive  adverbs,  should 
not  be  used  to  unite  coordinate  verbs  in  a  sentence  unless 
and  or  but  be  used  in  addition  to  the  adverb. 

Bad :  The  boys'  grades  are  low,  so  they  indicate  lack  of  application. 
Good:  The  boys'  grades  are  low,  and  so  indicate  lack  of  applica- 
tion. 

Bad:  He  read  for  a  while,  then  fell  asleep. 
Good:  He  read  for  a  while,  and  then  fell  asleep. 

Bad:  I'll  be  down  next  week;  also  I  shall  bring  Jack  along. 
Good:  I'll  be  down  next  week;  and  also  I  shall  bring  Jack  along. 

Exercise  59 

Correct  the  following  sentences: 

1.  Anarchism  is  when  one  believes  in  no  government. 

2.  I  am  studying  German,  also  French. 

3.  The  clock  had  just  struck  five  when  the  cab  came. 

4.  I  shall  work  until  nine  o'clock,  then  I  shall  retire. 

5.  I  was  sick  all  day,  so  I  couldn't  come  to  the  office. 

6.  I  was  going  up  street  yesterday  when  unexpectedly  I  met 
Jones. 

7.  Death  is  when  one  ceases  to  live. 

8.  Dinner  is  ready,  so  I  shall  have  to  cease  work. 

9.  He  told  half  of  the  story,  then  he  suddenly  stopped. 

10.  He  loves  good  music,  also  good  pictures. 

11.  A  restaurant  is  where  meals  are  served. 


CONNECTIVES  105 

83.  Conjunctions.  There  are  certain  conjunctions,  and 
also  certain  pairs  of  conjunctions  that  frequently  cause 
trouble. 

And  or  but  should  not  be  used  to  join  a  dependent  clause  to  an 
independent  clause;  as,  It  was  a  new  valise  and  differing  much  from 
his  old  one.  Say  instead,  It  was  a  new  valise,  differing  much  from  his 
old  one,  or  It  was  a  new  valise,  and  differed  very  much  from  his  old  one. 
Similarly,  It  was  a  new  book  which  (not  and  which)  interested  him  very 
much.  This  "and  which"  construction  is  a  frequent  error;  and  which 
should  never  be  used  unless  there  is  more  than  one  relative  clause, 
and  then  never  with  the  first  one. 

But  or  for  should  not  be  used  to  introduce  both  of  two  succeeding 
statements.  Both  of  the  following  sentences  are  bad  by  reason  of 
this  error:  He  likes  geometry,  but  fails  in  algebra,  but  studies  it  hard, 
He  read  all  night,  for  the  book  interested  him,  for  it  was  along  the  line 
of  his  ambition. 

Than  and  as  should  not  be  followed  by  objective  pronouns  in 
sentences  like  this :  /  am  as  large  as  him.  The  verb  in  these  sentences  is 
omitted.  If  it  is  supplied,  the  error  will  be  apparent.  The  sentence 
would  then  read,  I  am  as  large  as  him  (is  large).  The  correct  form  is, 
/  am  as  large  as  he  (is  large).  Similarly,  He  is  taller  than  I  (am  tall), 
She  is  brighter  than  he  (is  bright). 

As  may  be  used  as  either  a  conjunction  or  an  adverb.  He  is  as 
tall  as  I.  The  first  as  is  an  adverb,  the  second  as  is  a  conjunction. 
As  is  properly  used  as  an  adverb  when  the  equality  is  asserted,  but, 
when  the  equality  is  denied,  so  should  be  used  in  its  place.  He  is 
as  old  as  I,  is  correct,  but  the  denial  should  be,  He  is  not  so  old  as  I. 
After  not  do  not  use  as  when  as  is  an  adverb. 

Neither,  when  used  as  a  conjunction,  should  be  followed  by  nor; 
as,  Neither  he  nor  (not  or)  I  can  come.  Neither  should  never  be  followed 
by  or. 

Either,  when  used  as  a  conjunction,  should  be  followed  by  or. 

,84.  Placing  of  Correlatives.  The  correlatives,  such  as 
neither — nor,  either — or,  not  only — but  also,  should  be  placed 
in  clear  relation  to  similar  parts  of  speech  or  similar  parts 


106         PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

of  the  sentence.     One  should  not  be  directed  toward  a  verb 
and  the  other  toward  some  other  part  of  speech. 

Bad :  He  not  only  brought  a  book,  but  also  a  pencil. 
Good :  He  brought  not  only  a  book  but  also  a  pencil. 

Bad:  He  would  offer  neither  reparation  nor  would  he  apologize. 
Good :  Neither  would  he  offer  reparation  nor  would  he  apologize. 
Good:  He  would  offer  neither  reparation  nor  apology. 

85.     The  prepositions  without,  except,  like,  and  the  ad- 
verb directly  should  not  be  used  as  conjunctions. 

Wrong:  Without  (unless)  you  attend  to  class-room  work,  you  cannot 


Wrong:  This  she  would  not  do  except  (unless}  we  promised  to  pay 
at  once. 

Wrong:  I  acted  just  like  (as)  all  the  others  (did). 

Wrong:  Directly  (as  soon  as)  he  came,  we  harnessed  the  horses. 

Exercise  60 

Correct  the  following  sentences: 

1.  Mary  is  as  old  as  her. 

2.  I  read  as  much  as  him. 

3.  He  either  wore  his  coat  or  a  sort  of  vest. 

4.  He  walked  to  the  next  town,  but  did  not  come  back,  but 
stayed  all  night. 

5.  We  are  better  players  than  them. 

6.  He  became  thoroughly  under  the  influence  of  the  hypnotist 
and  doing  many  absurd  things. 

7.  There  we  met  a  man  named  Harmon  and  whom  we  found  very 
entertaining. 

8.  They  work  harder  than  us. 

9.  John  is  not  as  tall  as  you. 

10.  Neither  John  or  James  is  as  tall  as  you. 

11.  I  admire  Mary  more  than  she. 

12.  That  can't  be  done  without  you  get  permission  from  the 
principal. 


CONNECTIVES  107 

"  13.  He  dresses  just  like  I  do. 

14.  Directly  he  came  we  launched  the  canoes. 

15.  This  cannot  be  done  except  you  are  a  senior. 

16.  Neither  she  or  I  was  present. 

17.  He  not  only  had  a  trained  pig  but  also  a  goose. 

18.  Mary  is  not  as  pretty  as  Helen. 

19.  The  men  neither  interested  him  nor  the  places. 

20.  He  has  traveled  more  than  me. 

*  21.     We  like  him  very  much,  for  he  is  very  interesting,  for  he 
has  traveled  so  much. 

22.  It  is  a  good  book  arid  which  has  much  valuable  information. 

23.  It  was  a  rough  town  and  harboring  many  criminals. 

24.  He  took  an  interest  neither  in  studies,  nor  did  he  care  fox 
athletics. 

25.  He  neither  took  an  interest  in  studies  nor  athletics. 

•  Exercise  61 

Construct  sentences  in  which  the  following  words  are  correctly 
used: 

When,  where,  than,  as — as,  so — as,  neither — nor,  not  only — but 
also,  either — or,  except,  like,  without,  directly. 

86.  Prepositions.  Some  mistakes  are  made  in  the  use 
of  prepositions.  Note  the  following  brief  list  of  words  wita 
the  appropriate  prepositions  to  be  used  with  each: 

agree  with  a  person  differ  from  (person  or  thing) 

agree  to  a  proposition  differ  from  or  with  an  opinion 

bestow  upon  different  from 
compare  with  (to  determine  value)     glad  of 
compare  to  (because  of  similarity)      need  of 

comply  with  part  from  (a  person) 

confide  in  (to  trust  in)  part  with  (a  thing) 

confide  to  (to  intrust  to)  profit  by 

confer  on  (to  give)  prohibit  from 

confer  with  (to  talk  with)  reconcile  to  (a  person) 

convenient  to  (a  place)  reconcile  with  (a  statement) 

convenient  for  (a  purpose)  scared  by 

.  dependent  on  think  of  or  about 


108         PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

Do  not  use  prepositions  where  they  are  unnecessary.  Note 
the  following  improper  expressions  in  which  the  preposition 
should  be  omitted: 

continue  on  down  until 

covered  over  inside  of 

off  of  outside  of 

started  out  where  tot 

wish  for  to  come  remember  of 
more  than  you  think  for 

Do  not  omit  any  preposition  that  is  necessary  to  the  com- 
pleteness of  the  sentence. 

Bad :  He  is  a  dealer  and  shipper  of  coal. 
Good :  He  is  a  dealer  in  and  shipper  of  coal. 

Exercise  62 

Illustrate  in  sentences  the  correct  use  of  each  of  the  expressions 
listed  under  the  first  paragraph  of  §  86. 

Form,  sentences  in  which  correct  expressions  are  used  in  place 
of  each  of  the  incorrect  expressions  listed  under  the  second  par- 
agraph of  §  86. 


QUESTIONS   FOR  THE  REVIEW  OF   GRAMMAR 

Sentences,  Parts  of  Speech,  and  Sentence  Elements.  What  are  the 
four  kinds  of  sentences?  What  are  the  different  parts  of  speech? 
Define  each.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  clause  and  a  phrase? 
What  is  the  difference  between  a  principal  clause  and  a  subordinate 
clause?  Illustrate.  Illustrate  an  adverbial  clause.  An  adjective 
clause.  Illustrate  an  adverbial  phrase.  An  adjective  phrase.  What 
is  an  attribute  complement?  Illustrate.  What  is  an  object  comple- 
ment? Illustrate.  Illustrate  and  explain  the  difference  between 
simple,  complex,  and  compound  sentences. 

Nouns.  What  is  the  difference  between  singular  and  plural  num- 
ber? How  is  the  plural  of  most  nouns  formed?  Of  nouns  ending  in 
s,  ch,  sh,  x,  or  z?  In  y?  In  /  or  /e?  In  o?  Of  letters,  figures,  etc.? 
Of  compound  nouns?  Of  proper  names  and  titles?  How  is  the  pos- 
sessive case  of  most  nouns  formed?  Of  nouns  ending  in  s  or  in  an  s 
sound  ?  Of  a  compound  noun  or  of  a  group  of  words  ?  What  is  gender  ? 
How  is  the  feminine  gender  formed  from  the  masculine?  What 
is  the  difference  between  common  and  proper  nouns? 

Pronouns.  What  is  a  pronoun?  What  is  the  antecedent  of  a 
pronoun?  What  is  the  rule  for  their  agreement?  What  is  meant 
by  "person"  in  pronouns?  Name  five  pronouns, of  each  person. 
Name  the  pronouns  that  indicate  masculine  gender.  Feminine. 
Neuter.  What  pronouns  may  be  used  to  refer  to  antecedents  that 
stand  for  persons  of  either  sex?  To  antecedents  that  are  collective 
nouns  of  unity?  To  animals?  What  are  nouns  of  common  gender? 
By  what  pronouns  are  they  referred  to?  Should  a  singular  or  a  plural 
pronoun  be  used  after  everybody?  After  some  one?  After  some  people? 
After  two  nouns  connected  by  or?  By  nor?  By  and?  What  are 
relative  pronouns?  Name  them.  With  what  kind  of  antecedents 
may  each  be  used?  What  is  the  difference  between  the  explanatory 
relative  and  the  restrictive  relative?  Illustrate.  What  is  an  in- 

109 


110          PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION 

terrogative  pronoun?  What  pronouns  may  be  used  only  in  the 
nominative  case?  In  the  objective  case?  When  should  the  nomi- 
native case  be  used?  The  objective?  The  possessive ?  May  #10^  and 
you  be  used  in  the  same  sentence  ?  When  should  but  that  be  used,  and 
when  but  what!  May  them  be  used  adjectively?  May  which  be  used 
with  a  clause  as  an  antecedent  ?  May  which  and  that,  or  who  and  that 
be  used  in  the  same  sentence  with  the  same  antecedent? 

Adjectives  and  Adverbs.  Distinguish  between  adjectives  and  ad- 
verbs. Illustrate.  What  is  comparison?  What  is  the  positive  de- 
gree, the  comparative,  the  superlative?  Illustrate  each.  May  one 
say,  He  is  the  largest  of  the  two!  Reason?  He  is  the  larger  of 
the  three!  Reason?  He  is  the  largest  of  all?  Reason?  Name  three 
adjectives  which  cannot  be  compared.  May  one  say,  Paris  is  larger 
than  any  city!  Reason?  Paris  is  larger  than  all  cities?  Reason? 
Paris  is  the  largest  of  any  other  city?  Reason?  Is  a  singular  or 
plural  noun  demanded  by  every?  By  two?  By  various?  By  each? 
With  how  many  objects  may  either  be  used?  Neither?  Where  should 
the  adjective  or  adverb  be  placed  in  the  sentence?  What  is  meant 
by  a  double  negative?  Illustrate.  What  is  its  effect?  What  is  the 
definite  article? 

Verbs.  What  is  a  verb?  What  is  a  principal  verb?  An  auxiliary? 
Illustrate.  What  are  the  principal  parts  of  a  verb?  Name  each. 
With  what  is  the  s-form  used?  With  which  form  can  no  auxiliary  be 
used?  Make  a  sentence  using  each  of  the  principal  parts  of  the  verbs, 
go,  see,  begin,  come,  drink,  write.  What  is  a  transitive  verb  ?  Illustrate. 
An  intransitive  verb?  Illustrate.  What  is  the  difference  between 
active  and  passive  voice?  Does  a  transitive  or  does  an  intransitive 
verb  have  both  voices?  Illustrate  the  passive  voice.  Distinguish 
between  the  use  of  sit  and  set.  Of  lay  and  lie.  Of  rise  and  raise. 
What  is  the  general  rule  for  the  use  of  the  subjunctive  mode?  In 
what  way  and  where  does  the  subjunctive  of  be  differ  from  the  in- 
dicative in  its  forms?  How  do  other  verbs  differ  in  the  form  of  the 
subjunctive?  In  what  respects  should  a  verb  agree  with  its  subject? 
Does  the  form  of  the  subject  always  determine  its  number?  What 
should  be  the  guide  in  determining  whether  to  use  a  singular  or  plural 
verb?  What  class  of  subjects  may  not  be  used  with  don't,  can't,  etc.? 
What  determines  whether  to  use  a  singular  or  a  plural  verb  after  who, 


QUESTIONS  FOR  THE  REVIEW  OF  GRAMMAR        111 

which,  and  that?  What  form  of  the  verb  is  used  after  you?  After 
they?  When  are  shall  and  should  used  with  /  and  we?  When  with  other 
subjects?  What  rule  governs  their  use  in  questions.  What  form  is 
used  in  dependent  clauses  introduced  by  that,  expressed  or  understood? 
In  contingent  clauses?  Distinguish  the  use  of  may  and  might  from 
can  and  could.  What  is  a  "dangling  participle"?  Is  it  an  error? 
May  the  gerund  be  correctly  used  without  any  grammatical  connection 
to  the  rest  of  the  sentence  ?  As  the  object  of  a  preposition  is  a  participle 
or  gerund  used?  Which  is  used  adjectively?  Which  may  be  used  in 
connection  with  a  possessive  substantive  as  a  modifier?  When  it  is 
dependent  on  another  verb,  in  what  case  should  the  present  infinitive 
be  used?  When  the  perfect  infinitive?  What  is  a  "split  infinitive"? 
Need  the  parts  of  a  compound  predicate  agree  in  tense? 

Connectives.  By  what  are  independent  clauses  connected?  De- 
pendent clauses?  Name  two  conjunctive  adverbs.  Should  a  when 
clause  be  used  in  a  subordinate  or  in  the  principal  part  of  the  sentence? 
May  so,  then,  or  also  be  used  alone  as  conjunctive  adverbs?  May  and 
or  but  be  used  to  join  a  dependent  clause  to  a  principal  clause?  What 
case  should  follow  than  or  as  ?  Should  neither  be  followed  by  nor  or  or  ? 


A  GENERAL   EXERCISE  ON  GRAMMAR 

Exercise  63 

Correct  such  of  the  following  sentences  as  are  wrong.  After 
each  sentence,  in  parenthesis,  is  placed  the  number  of  the  para- 
graph  in  which  is  discussed  the  question  involved: 

1.  He  likes  to  boast  of  Mary  cooking.     (71.) 

2.  It  is  an  error  and  which  can't  be  corrected.     (83.) 

3.  He  said  he  should  come  if  he  could.     (68.) 

4.  Can  I  use  your  pencil?     (69.) 

5.  If  you  were  I,  what  would  you  do?     (68.) 

6.  We  would  like  to  go.     (68.) 

7.  Neither  the  members  of  the  committee  nor  the  chairman  is 
present.     (63-5.) 

8.  He  only  spoke  of  history,  not  of  art.     (45.) 

9.  Socialists  don't  have  no  use  for  trusts.     (46.) 

10.  This  is  John's  book.     (13.) 

11.  I  feared  that  they  should  not  come.     (68.) 

12.  Mother's  and  father's  death.     (15-4.) 

13.  Mary  was  eager  to  have  gone.     (73.) 

14.  The  boys,  as  well  as  their  teacher,  is  to  be  praised.     (64-1.) 

15.  The  members  of  Congress  watch  each  other.     (44.) 

16.  I  fear  that  I  will  take  cold.     (67.) 

17.  Some  one  has  forgotten  their  umbrella.     (20.) 

18.  Neither  of  the  three  is  well.     (43.) 

19.  Whom  do  you  consider  to  be  the  brighter  man  in  the  class? 
(29)  (41.) 

20.  He  is  determined  that  he  shall  go  away.     (67.) 

21.  Neither  John  nor  James  brought  their  books.     (22.) 

22.  Whom  did  the  man  say  he  was?     (29.) 

23.  His  clothes  look  prettily.     (38.) 

112 


A  GENERAL  EXERCISE  ON  GRAMMAR  113 

24.  The  play  progressed  smooth  until  the  last  act.     (38.) 

25.  Henry  and  William  is  to  come  to-morrow.     (22.) 

26.  This  is  the  lesser  of  the  two  evils.     (40.) 

27.  Do  you  think  you  will  stop  at  Chicago?     (66.) 

28.  I  am  believed  to  be  him.     (29.) 

29.  He  sings  very  illy.     (40.) 

30.  When  they  come  to  build  the  bridge  the  stream  was  too  deep 
for  them  to  work.     (54.) 

31.  She  is  very  discontented.     (48.) 

32.  Iron  is  the  most  useful  of  all  other  metals.     (41-3.) 

33.  The  barrel  bursted  from  the  pressure.     (54.) 

34.  Shall  my  work  soon  begin?     (66.) 

35.  He  is  six  foot  tall.     (42.) 

36.  Seeing  his  mistake,  I  was  not  urged  further  by  him.     (71.) 

37.  Will  the  dog  bite?     (66.) 

38.  I  am  believed  to  be  he.     (29.) 

39.  I  am  eager  to  have  seen  it.     (73.) 

40.  I  think  it  shall  rain  soon.     (67.) 

41.  She  showed  the  dish  to  Mary  and  I.     (29.) 

42.  Mary  asked  her  mother  to  wash  her  face.     (34-4.) 

43.  Who  did  the  man  say  he  was?    (29.) 

44.  He  deserved  the  place,  for  he  is  well  educated,  for  he  has 
been  through  Oxford  University.     (83.) 

45.  Choose  who  you  please.     (29.) 

46.  It  don't  make  any  difference  about  that.     (64-5.) 

47.  The  pump  was  froze  fast.     (54.) 

48.  A  boat  load  of  fishes  was  the  days  catch.     (13-12.) 

49.  Wagner  was  never  too  rattled  to  play.     (48.) 

50.  It  is  him.     (29.) 

51.  He  did  it  hisself.     (31.) 

52.  He  eat  all  there  was  on  the  table.     (54.) 

53.  ^He  sent  a  chest  of  tea,  and  it  was  made  of  tin.     (34-4.) 

54.  The  murderer  was  hung  at  noon.     (54.) 

55.  It  is  a  queer  kind  of  a  book.     (47.) 

56.  You  may  give  it  to  whoever  you  wish.     (32.) 

57.  Whoever  is  nominated,  will  you  vote  for  him?     (32.) 

58.  I  think  I  will  find  the  work  easy.     (67.) 

59.  He  sent  his  son  abroad,  being  anxious  for  his  health.     (71.) 


114  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION 

60.  Neither  they  nor  Mary  was  there.     (22.) 

61.  Brewer's  the  blacksmith's  shop.     (15-6.) 

62.  Goliath  was  slew  by  David.     (54.) 

63.  Myself  and  mother  are  sick.     (30.) 

64.  John  is  as  good,  if  not  better  than  she.     (41-4.) 

65.  If  anybody  creates  a  disturbance,  have  the  police  put  them 
out.     (21.) 

66.  The  paper  was  addressed  to  John  and  herself.     (30.) 

67.  John's  and  William's  dog.     (15-4.) 

68.  Tell  the  boy  and  girl  to  come  here.     (47.) 

69.  Everybody's  else  mail  has  came.     (15, 54.) 

70.  He  knows  nothing  about  it  but  that  he  has  read  in  the  paper. 
(34-6.) 

71.  Awake  me  early  in  the  morning.     (57.) 

72.  If  he  be  honest,  he  has  not  shown  it.     (60.) 

73.  Either  Adams  or  Monroe  were  president.     (63-4.) 

74.  Washington,  the  general  and  the  president,  was  born  on  Feb- 
ruary 22d.     (47.) 

75.  Home's  and  Company's  Store.     (15-4.) 

76.  A  hole  had  been  tore  in  the  ships'  side.     (54.) 

77.  I  sat  my  chair  by  the  window.     (57.) 

78.  I  sat  myself  down  to  rest.     (57.) 

79.  I  can't  hardly  see  to  write.     (46.) 

80.  John  is  one  of  the  people  who  comes  each  night.     (64-4.) 

81.  He  laid  on  the  couch  all  day.     (57.) 

82.  Death  is  when  one  ceases  to  live.     (81.) 

83.  I  was  told  to  set  here.     (57.) 

84.  Iron  is  more  useful  than  any  other  metal.     (41-3.) 

85.  I  not  only  told  him,  but  also  Morton.     (84.) 

86.  McKinley  was  nowhere  near  so  strenuous  as  Roosevelt.    (40.) 

87.  It  weighs  several  ton.     (42.) 

88.  John  is  not  as  bright  as  Henry.     (83.) 

89.  Germany  and  France's  ships.     (15-4.) 

90.  John's  employer's  wife's  friend.     (15-5.) 

91.  You  had  ought  to  go  home.     (54.) 

92.  This  is  the  man  who  wants  the  ticket.     (26.) 

93.  Which  is  the  larger  of  the  three?     (41-1.) 

94.  An  axe  is  the  tool  which  they  use.     (26.) 


A  GENERAL  EXERCISE  ON  GRAMMAR  115 

95.  It  is  that  characteristic  that  makes  him  so  disagreeable.  (26.) 

96.  The  horse  which  we  drove,  and  the  horse  which  you  had  last 
week  are  the  same.     (26,  34-5.) 

97.  I  don't  like  those  kind  of  people.     (42.) 

98.  I  do  not  question  but  what  he  is  right.     (34-6.) 

99.  Let  him  lay  there.     (57.) 

100.  My  friend  and  me  drove  to  Hughesville.     (29.) 

101.  American  and  English  grammar  is  alike.     (63-1.) 

102.  William  and  Mary  has  to  go  to  the  city.     (63-2.) 

103.  The  boy,  and  not  his  parents,  were  wrong.     (63-3.) 

104.  The  price  of  meat  has  raised.     (57.) 

105.  This  train  runs  slow.     (38.) 

106.  Which  is  the  best  of  the  two?     (41-1.) 

107.  Iron  is  the  most  useful  of  all  other  metals.     (41-3.) 

108.  Without  the  safety  catch  is  raised,  the  gun  can't  be  dis- 
jharged.     (85.) 

109.  The  family  is  all  at  home.     (62.) 

110.  The  horse  run  the  mile  in  two  minutes.     (54.) 

111.  This  suit  hasn't  hardly  been  wore.     (46,  54.) 

112.  The  knife  has  laid  there  all  day.     (57.) 

113.  The  noise  of  the  street  was  very  loud,  which  kept  me  awake. 
:34-9.) 

114.  The  jury  has  agreed.     (62.) 

115.  Such  things  make  him  terrible  nervous.     (38.) 

116.  Whom  do  you  think  is  the  brightest  man?    (29.) 

117.  The  army  were  defeated.     (62.) 

118.  If  I  was  you,  I  should  go  at  once.     (60.) 

119.  She  may  go  if  she  wishes  or  not.     (76.) 

120.  Everybody  whom  was  there  was  given  a  vote.     (79.) 

121.  I.  like  her  better  than  you.     (76.) 

122.  Who  do  you  want?     (79.) 

123.  Knox  is  one  of  the  alumnuses  of  the  college.     (13-13.) 

124.  By  law,  no  one  is  allowed  to  kill  more  than  two  deers.     (13.) 

125.  The  clock  had  just  struck  five  when  the  cab  came.     (80.) 

126.  When  was  you  there?     (64-2.) 

127.  He  is  as  tall  as  me.     (83.) 

128.  Neither  John  nor  her  will  come.     (29.) 

129.  You  hear  such  statements  everywheres.     (34-8,  40.) 


116  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

130.  You  never  can  tell  whom  you  will  meet  on  the  train.     (79.) 

131.  I  wish  you  were  more  like  she.     (29.) 

132.  Winter,  with  her  frost,  destroyed  them  all.     (20.) 

133.  Tell  everybody  to  cast  their  vote  for  Jones.     (21.) 

134.  He  is  the  only  one  of  the  members  who  pay  dues.     (64-4.) 

135.  Was  it  necessary,  I  should  jump?     (60.) 

136.  The  production  of  oranges  were  encouraged.     (64-3.) 

137.  The  ship,  with  all  its  passengers,  were  lost.     (64-1.) 

138.  He  has  fell  from  his  chair.     (57.) 

139.  I  will  raise  and  go  to  my  father.     (57.) 

140.  The  policeman  failed  the  ruffian  with  his  club.     (57.) 

141.  They  make  pottery  in  Trenton.     (34-8.) 

142.  Iron  is  more  useful  than  all  metals.     (41-3.) 

143.  I  intended  to  and  have  endeavored  to  finish  the  work.     (75.) 

144.  He  won't  come,  except  we  pay  his  expenses.     (85.) 

145.  Neither  German  or  French  is  taught  there.     (83.) 

146.  We  have  needed  you  and  did  our  best  to  find  you.     (75.) 

147.  He  awoke  at  nine.     (57.) 

148.  I  wish  I  was  a  bird.     (60.) 

149.  If  it  rains,  I  stay  at  school.     (60.) 

150.  Thou  shouldst  pray  when  you  are  in  trouble.     (34-2.) 

151.  The  Indians,  they  hid  behind  trees.     (34-3.) 

152.  We  started  out  for  the  city  at  noon.     (86.) 

153.  The  king,  he  said  they  should  kill  him.     (34-3.) 

154.  Outside  of  the  house  stood  a  large  moving  van.     (86.) 


CHAPTER   VII 
SENTENCES 

87.  Classified   as  to  their  rhetorical   construction,  sen- 
tences are  considered  as  loose,  periodic,  and  balanced. 

The  Loose  Sentence  is  so  constructed  that  it  may  be  closed 

at  two  or  more  places  and  yet  make  complete  sense;  as, 

-'^> 
Napoleon  felt  his  weakness,  and  tried  to  win  back  popular  favor 

by  concession  after  concession^TmtiHj  at  his  fall,  he  had  nearly  restored 
parliamentary  government* 

Note  that  this  sentence  could  be  closed  after  the  words 
weakness,  favor,  and  concession,  as  well  as  after  government. 

88.  The  Periodic  Sentence  holds  the  complete  thought 
in  suspense  until  the  close  of  the  sentence.     Compare  the 
following  periodic  sentence  with  the  loose  sentence  under  §  87 : 

Napoleon,  feeling  his  weakness,  and  trying  to  win  back  popular 
favor  by  concession  after  concession,  had,  at  his  fall,  nearly  restored 
parliamentary  government. 

Both  loose  and  periodic  sentences  are  proper  to  use,  but, 
since  periodic  sentences  demand  more  careful  and  definite 
thought,  the  untrained  writer  should  try  to  use  them  as  much 
as  possible. 

89.  The  Balanced  Sentence  is  made  up  of  parts  similar 
in  form,  but  often   contrasted  in  meaning;  as,  He  is  a  man; 
Jones  is  a  gentleman. 

90.  Sentence  Length.     As  to  the  length  of  the  sentence 
there  is  no  fixed  rule.     Frequently,  sentences  are  too  long,  and 
are,  in  their  thought,  involved  and  hard  to  follow.    On  the  other 
hand,  if  there  is  a  succession  of  short  sentences,  choppiness 

9  117 


118         PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION 

and  roughness  are  the  result.  One  should  carefully  examine 
sentences  which  contain  more  than  thirty  or  thirty-five  words 
to  see  that  they  are  clear  in  their  meaning  and  accurate  in 
their  construction. 


Exercise  64 

Compose,  or  search  out  in  your  reading,  five  loose  sentences, 
five  periodic  sentences,  and  five  balanced  sentences. 

Exercise  65 

In  the  following  sentences,  determine  whether  each  sentence 
is  loose,  periodic,  or  balanced.  Change  all  loose  sentences 
to  the  periodic  form: 

1.  At  the  same  time  the  discontent  of  the  artisans  made  the 
lower  class  fear  a  revolution,  and  that  class  turned  to  Napoleon,  be- 
cause they  felt  him  to  be  the  sole  hope  for  order  and  stable  government. 

2.  The  members  of  the  council  were  appointed  by  the  king,  and 
held  office  only  at  his  pleasure. 

3.  A  society  and  institutions  that  had  been  growing  up  for  years 
was  overturned  and  swept  away  by  the  French  Revolution. 

4.  Galileo  was  summoned  to  Rome,  imprisoned,  and  forced  pub- 
licly to  adjure  his  teaching  that  the  earth  moved  around  the  sun. 

5.  He  draws  and  sketches  with  tolerable  skill,  but  paints  abomin- 
ably. 

6.  Loose  sentences  may  be  clear;  periodic  sentences  may  not  be 
clear. 

7.  He  rode  up  the  mountains  as  far  as  he  could  before  dismounting 
and  continuing  the  ascent  on  foot. 

8.  They  visited  the  town  where  their  father  had  lived,  and  while 
there,  procured  the  key  to  the  house  in  which  he  had  been  born. 

9.  His  death  caused  great  grief  and  extreme  financial  distress 
in  the  family. 

10.  There  stands  the  Tower  of  London  in  all  its  grimness  and  cen- 
turies of  age,  holding  within  its  walls  the  scene  of  many  a  stirring 
tragedy. 


SENTENCES  119 

11.  Few  men  dislike  him,  but  many  would  gladly  see  him  over- 
thrown merely  as  an  example. 

12.  Germany  is  moving  in  the  same  direction,  although  the  re- 
formers find  it  a  hard  task  to  influence  public  opinion,  and  a  far  harder 
one  to  change  the  various  laws  prevalent  in  the  many  German  states. 

13.  Is  this  thing  we  call  life,  with  all  its  troubles,  pains,  and  woes, 
after  all,  worth  living? 

14.  He  read  much,  but  advanced  little  intellectually,  for  all  the 
facts  and  philosophy  of  his  reading  found  no  permanent  lodgment  in 
his  mind. 

15.  His  coming  home  was  very  unexpected,  because  he  had  started 
on  a  trip  that  usually  took  ten  days,  and  that  he  had  said  would  take 
longer  this  time. 

16.  It  was  during  the  time  of  the  National  Convention  that 
Napoleon  first  became  very  prominent  by  defending  the  convention 
against  a  mob. 

Exercise  66 

Combine  each  of  the  following  groups  of  sentences  into  one 
well  constructed  long  sentence: 

1.  In  highly  developed  commercial  communities  banks  cannot 
afford  space  in  their  vaults  for  valuables.     Especially,  they  cannot 
afford  it  merely  to  accommodate  their  patrons.    Hence,  in  such  com- 
munities the  furnishing   of  places   for  safe  deposit  has  become  a 
separate  business. 

2.  History  should  be  a  part  of  the  course  in  all  schools.     It  de- 
velops the  memory.     It  furnishes  the  explanation  of  many  social 
phenomena.     It  broadens  the  intellectual  view.     It  gives  culture  as 
no  other  study  can  give  it. 

3.  He  never  desired  a  higher  education.     This  was  possible  be- 
cause of  the  money  bequeathed  to  him  by  his  father.     It  had  left  him 
no  need  for  a  great  earning  capacity.     More  likely,  it  was  because  of 
the  inborn  dulness  and  lethargy  of  his  mind. 

4.  New  York  is  the  pivotal  state  in  all  national  elections.     Its 
great  number  of  electors  makes  it  always  possible  for  it  to  throw  the 
election  either  way.    Therefore,  until  one  knows  to  which  party  New 
York  will  fall,  he  cannot  tell  how  the  election  will  result. 


120          PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

5.  Our  forefathers  were  devout.     They  were  easily  shocked  in 
many  ways.     However,  they  permitted  many  liberties  in  the  applica- 
tion of  sermons  to  particular  individuals.     Such  things  would  nowa- 
days be  strongly  disapproved  or  resented. 

6.  Man's  life  is  divided  into  two  parts  by  a  constantly  moving 
point.     This  point  is  called  the  present.     It  divides  the  past  from  the 
future. 

7.  The   Spartans  were  tormented  by  ten  thousand  absurd  re- 
straints.   They  were  unable  to  please  themselves  in  the  choice  of  their 
wives.    They  were  unable  to  please  themselves  in  their  choice  of  food  or 
clothing.     They  were    compelled  to  assume  a  peculiar  manner,  and 
to  talk  in  a  peculiar  style.     Yet  they  gloried  in  their  liberty. 

8.  The  mere  approach  to  the  temperance  question  is  through  a 
forest  of  statistics.     This  forest  is  formidable  and  complicated.     It 
causes  one,  in  time,  to  doubt  the  truth  of  numbers. 

9.  They  passed  the  old  castle.     It  was  almost  unrecognizable. 
This  was  by  reason  of  the  scaffolding  which  surrounded  it.     The 
castle  was  now  being  transformed  into  a  national  museum. 

10.  He  stood  looking  with   curiosity  at   John   Peters.     Peters 
limped  slightly.     Otherwise,   he   looked  well  and  happy.     He  was 
moving  about  shaking  hands  right  and  left. 

11.  They  rushed  at  him  with  a  yell.     He  had  by  this  time  reached 
the  base  of  the  fountain.     With  a  sudden  wonderful  leap  he  sprang 
onto  the  railing.     There  he  was  out  of  reach.     He  balanced  himself 
by  touching  the  brackets  which  held  the  lamps. 

12.  The  unintelligent  worker  reminds  one  of  the  squirrel  on  the 
wheel.     The  squirrel  rushes  round  and  round  and  round  all  day  long. 
At  the  end  of  the  day  the  squirrel  is  still  a  squirrel.     It  is  still  rushing 
round  and  round.     It  is  getting  nowhere. 

13.  The  man  looked  at  the  ladder.     He  believed  he  could  reach  it. 
There  was  a  sudden  flash  of  hope  in  his  face.     His  face  was  already 
scorched  by  the  fire. 

14.  Smith  was  financially  embarrassed.     He  was  determined  to  get 
to  his  home.     He  crawled  on  top  of  the  trucks  of  an  express  car.     The 
car  was  about  to  leave  the  terminal.     He  courted  almost  certain  death. 

15.  The  commander  again  looks  toward  the  hills.     He  looks  for 
a  long  time.     Something  seems  to  excite  his  apprehension.     He  con- 
verses earnestly  with  the  staff  officer.     Then  the  two  look  more  than 


SENTENCES  121 

once  toward  a  poplar  tree.     The  tree  stands  at  the  tojy  of  the  hill. 
Only  its  top  half  shows.     The  hill  is  on  the  east. 

16.  The  most  important  political  question  has  been  the  tariff 
question.     This  has  been  most  important  for  ten  years.     It  is  important 
because  it  is  believed  to  have  caused  high  prices  and  trusts. 

17.  The  pleasantest   month  is  June.     It  has  flowers.     It   has 
mild  weather.     It  has  a  slight  haze  in  the  atmosphere.     These  things 
seem  to  flood  one's  soul  with  peace  and  contentment. 

91.  The  essential  qualities  that  a  sentence  should  possess, 
aside  from  correctness,  are  those  of  Unity,  Coherence,  Emphasis, 
and  Euphony. 

Unity.  Unity  demands  that  the  sentence  deal  with  but 
one  general  thought,  and  that  it  deal  with  it  in  such  a  con- 
sistent and  connected  manner  that  the  thought  is  clearly  and 
effectively  presented.  Unity  demands,  also,  that  closely  re- 
lated thoughts  should  not  be  improperly  scattered  among 
several  sentences. 

1.  Statements  having  no  necessary  relation  to  one  another 
should  not  be  embodied  in  one  sentence. 

Bad :  The  house  sat  well  back  from  the  road,  and  its  owner  was  a 
married  man. 

Good:  The  house  sat  well  back  from  the  road.  Its  owner  was  a 
married  man. 

a.  Avoid  the  "comma  blunder";  that  is,  do  not   use  a 
comma  to  divide  into  clauses  what  should  be  separate  sen- 
tences, or  should  be  connected  by  a  conjunction. 

Bad :  Jones  lives  in  the  country,  he  has  a  fine  library. 
Good :  Jones  lives  in  the  country.     He  has  a  fine  library. 
Good :  Jones  lives  in  the  country  and  has  a  fine  library. 

b.  Avoid  the  frequent   use   of   the   parenthesis  in  the 
sentence. 

Bad:  This  is  a  city  (it  is  called  a  city,  though  it  has  but  twelve 
hundred  people)  that  has  no  school-house. 


122         PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION 

2.  Avoid  all  slipshod  construction  of  sentences. 

a.  Avoid    adding  a  clause  to   an  apparently  complete 
thought. 

Bad :  That  is  not  an  easy  problem,  /  think. 
Good :  That,  /  think,  is  not  an  easy  problem. 
Good:  /  do  not  think  that  is  an  easy  problem. 

Bad:  He  could  not  be  elected  mayor  again  under  any  circum- 
stances, at  least  so  I  am  told. 

Good :  He  could  not,  /  am  told,  be  elected  mayor  again  under  any 
circumstances. 

Good:  /  am  told  that  he  could  not  under  any  circumstances  be 
elected  mayor  again. 

b.  Avoid  long  straggling  sentences. 

« 

Poor:  The  students  often  gathered  to  watch  the  practice  of  the 
team,  but,  just  before  the  last  game,  the  management  excluded  almost 
all,  and  only  a  few  who  had  influence  were  allowed  to  enter,  and  this 
favoritism  caused  much  hard  feeling  and  disgust,  so  that  the  students 
were  reluctant  to  support  the  team,  and  lost  most  of  their  interest,  a 
fact  which  had  a  bad  effect  on  the  athletics  of  the  institution. 

3.  Unite  into  one  sentence  short  sentences  and  clauses 
that  are  closely  and  logically  connected  with  one  another. 

Bad :  That  it  is  a  good  school  is  not  without  proof.  Its  diplonu 
admits  to  all  colleges. 

Good :  That  it  is  a  good  school  is  not  without  proof,  for  its  diploma 
admits  to  all  colleges. 

Good :  That  its  diploma  admits  to  all  colleges  is  proof  that  it  is  a 
good  school. 

Bad :  This  fact  was  true  of  all  of  us.    With  the  exception  of  John, 
Good :  This  fact  was  true  of  all  of  us,  with  the  exception  of  John. 

Bad:  Edward  came.     But  John  never  appeared. 
Good :  Edward  came,  but  John  never  appeared. 


SENTENCES  123 

Bad :  The  town  has  two  railroads  running  through  it.  Also,  three 
trolley  lines. 

Good:  The  town  has  two  railroads  running  through  it,  and  also 
three  trolley  lines. 

Good :  The  town  has  two  railroads  and  three  trolley  lines  running 
through  it. 

4.     Do  not  change  the  point  of  view. 

Bad:  We  completed  our  themes,  and  they  were  handed  in  to  the 
teacher.  (In  the  first  part  of  the  sentence,  the  subject  is  we;  in  the 
second  it  is  themes.) 

Good:  We  completed  our  themes  and  handed  them  in  to  the 
teacher. 

Good :  Our  themes  were  completed  and  handed  in  to  the  teacher. 

Bad:  The  stage  took  us  to  the  foot  of  the  hill,  and  we  walked  from 
there  to  the  top,  where  our  friends  met  us. 

Good:  We  weie  taken  to  the  foot  of  the  hill  by  the  stage,  and 
we  walked  from  there  to  the  top,  where  we  were  met  by  our  friends. 

Exercise  67 

Revise  such  of  the  following  sentences  as  violate  the  principles 
of  unity: 

1.  I  frequently  had  ridden  on  a  bicycle,  and  though  the  first  ride 
made  me  stiff,  I  felt  little  inconvenience  afterwards. 

2.  Of  the  firm  Jones  &  Smith,  Jones  is  a  man  to  be  respected. 
While  Smith  is  thoroughly  dishonest. 

3.  John  had  plenty  of  energy  and  ambition.    And  it  is  hard  to 
understand  why  he  didn't  succeed. 

4.  I  have  taken  thorough  courses  in  history  in  both  grade  school 
and  high  school,  and  I  also  worked  on  the  farm  in  the  summer. 

5.  In  the  East  the  people  are  conservative.     But,  in  the  West, 
they  are  radical  and  progressive. 

6.  The  news  came  that  special  rates  would  be  given  from  Chicago, 
and  that  we  could  go  to  Seattle  and  back  for  fifty  dollars,  and  so,  when 
our  checks  came,  we  seized  our  grips  and  started  on  a  trip  which  was 
so  long  and  eventful,  but  as  enjoyable  as  any  two  months  we  had  ever 


124         PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

spent,  and  gave  us  an  experience  that  was  very  valuable  in  our  work, 
which  we  took  up  on  our  return  in  the  fall. 

7.  The  town  has  a  fine  public  library,  besides  there  are  a  number 
of  steel  mills. 

8.  One  may  reach  Boston  in  two  ways.    Either  by  water  or  by 
rail. 

9.  Women  (and  Christian  American  women,  too)  frequently  try 
to  evade  the  customs  laws. 

10.  My  aunt  has  some  of  Jefferson's  silver  spoons,  so  she  says. 

11.  He  graduated  from  college  (I  think  it  was  Harvard,  though 
I  am  not  sure)  and  then  taught  for  three  years. 

12.  This  is  one  of  Hugo's  novels,  it  is  very  good. 

13.  He  accomplishes  everything  he  undertakes,  if  it  is  at  all 
possible. 

14.  Washington  was  president  of  the  United  States.    But  Hamil- 
ton guided  its  financial  policy. 

15.  Every  year  they  sell  three  hundred  sets,  and  Mr.  West  helps 
to  write  the  letters. 

16.  The  country  people  were  the  chief  patrons  of  the  store.    Al- 
though no  small  amount  of  trade  came  from  the  town. 

17.  The  box  sat  under  a  tree,  and  the  dog,  which  was  a  collie, 
would  go  when  he  was  told  and  sit  on  it,  and  no  one  could  call  him 
away  but  his  master  who  was  very  often  cruelly  slow  in  doing  so,  but 
the  dog  never  lost  patience. 

18.  He  was  one  of  those  persons  (of  whom  there  are  so  painfully 
many)  who  never  do  what  they  promise. 

19.  He  then  went  to  his  room,  which  was  in  the  back  of  the  house, 
to  sleep,  and  his  books  were  found  there  the  next  day. 

20.  He  was  the  man  that  I  had  mentioned,  who  had  been  recom- 
mended for  the  position.     Who  had  been  refused  because  of  his  de- 
ficiencies in  English. 

21.  I  can't  go,  I  don't  think. 

22.  He  was  a  very  big  and  very  strong  man.    And,  he  should 
have  made  a  great  football  player. 

23.  He  will  surely  be  elected,  I  haven't  any  fear. 

24.  The  food  was  good,  and  the  service  was  fine,  but  we  did  not 
care  to  stay  on  account  of  the  weather,  which  was  rainy  most  of  the 
time,  and  because  it  was  an  out-of-the-way  place. 


SENTENCES  125 

25.  He  converses  intelligently  and  pleasantly,  and  never  gossips, 
hence  he  is  an  agreeable  companion. 

26.  He  died  of  smallpox,  and  was  ninety  years  old. 

27.  There  were  twenty  boys  in  the  class.     Each  past  twenty- 
five  years  of  age. 

28.  He  is  in  every  way  honorable,  at  least  so  far  as  money  matters 
are  concerned. 

29.  I  had  not  previously  thought  of  going  to  college,  but  now  I 
was  enthusiastic  on  the  matter,  and  all  my  time  (at  least  most  of  it) 
was  devoted  to  poring  over  catalogues,  of  which  I  had  a  great  number, 
and  many  of  which  I  knew  by  heart  from  having  gone  over  them  so 
often,  and  finally  a  college  was  selected  which  seemed  to  suit  me,  so  I 
went  there  in  the  fall  to  study  chemistry. 

30.  He  was  very  sensitive.     So  that  we  could  tease  him  very  little 
without  making  him  angry. 

31.  There  are  a  great  number  of  stations  along  this  short  line  of 
railroad,  these,  however,  do  little  business. 

32.  They  stopped  and  asked  us  the  road  to  Milton,  and  it  was 
discovered  that  they  were  going  in  the  wrong  direction,  as  Milton  lay 
south  of  Williamsport,  and  we  were  camping  twenty  miles  north. 

33.  He  will  most  likely  be  suspended,  it  may  perhaps  be. 

34.  That  day  my  cousin  went  home,  and  the  next  day  John  came 
to  spend  a  few  hours  with  me,  and  in  the  afternoon  we  drove  all  over 
the  valley,  but  neither  of  us  grew  tired,  because  there  were  so  many 
things  to  converse  about,  and  so  many  long  treasured  questions  to 
ask,  and  John  left  in  the  evening,  and  then  I  went  to  bed. 

35.  He  has  been  proved  a  gambler,  there  you  have  it  all. 

36.  Mrs.  Smith  (whose  husband  had  been  killed  by  a  falling  beam 
?n  one  of  the  buildings  he  was  constructing)  consented  to  give  us  a 
room  and  board. 

37.  He  read  his  lesson  carefully,  then  he  closed  the  book  to  think 
it  over. 

38.  He  is  the  most  peculiar  person  I  ever  met — in  the  last  few  years 
at  least. 

39.  I  am  reading  a  book,  it  is  very  interesting. 

40.  They  get  a  great  deal  of  amusement  when  he  is  walking 
(which  he  does  every  nice   day)   by  whistling  in  tiine  with  his 
steps. 


126         PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION 

41.  He  gave  me  this  book  which  you  see,  and  I  have  been  able 
to  get  a  vast  amount  of  information  out  of  it. 

42.  It  was  noticed  by  every  one  that  he  always  behaved  welL 
When  he  was  in  school. 

43.  The  magician  was  present.    And  pleased  everybody  with 
his  performances. 

44.  Because  he  liked  music,  John  was  considered  an  odd  fellow, 
and  his  father  was  dead. 

92.  Coherence.  Coherence  in  the  sentence  demands 
that  the  arrangement  and  the  construction  of  the  sentence 
be  clear  and  free  from  ambiguity. 

1.  Frame  the  sentence  so  that  it  can  have  but  one  pos- 
sible meaning. 

Wrong:  He  owned  several  dogs  and  was  greatly  troubled  with  the 
mange. 

Right:  He  owned  several  dogs  and  was  greatly  troubled  because 
they  had  the  mange. 

Right:  He  was  greatly  troubled  because  several  of  his  dogs  had 
the  mange. 

2.  See  that  the  antecedent  of  every  pronoun  is  clear  and 
explicit. 

Wrong:  The  dog  was  bitten  on  the  front  foot  which  has  since  died. 
Right :  The  dog,  which  has  since  died,  was  bitten  on  the  front  foot. 
Right :  The  dog  was  bitten  on  the  front  foot  and  has  since  died. 

3.  See  that  the  word  to  which  each  modifier  refers  is 
unmistakable. 

a.  Place  every  modifying  element  as  near  as  possible 
to  the  word  which  it  modifies. 

Wrong:  He  was  sitting  in  a  chair  reading  a  book  made  in  the 
mission  style. 

Right :  He  was  sitting  in  a  chair  made  in  the  mission  style  and  was 
reading  a  book. 

Right :  He  was  sitting  reading  a  book  in  a  chair  made  in  the  mission 
style. 


SENTENCES  12? 

Wrong:  The  table  had  been  inlaid  by  his  father,  containing  over 
fifteen  hundred  pieces. 

Right:  The  table,  containing  over  fifteen  hundred  pieces,  had  been 
inlaid  by  his  father. 

Right :  The  table  contained  over  fifteen  hundred  pieces  and  had  been 
inlaid  by  his  father. 

b.  Avoid  the  "squinting  construction."  By  this  term 
is  meant  the  placing  of  a  clause  so  that  it  is  impossible  to  tell 
whether  it  refers  to  the  preceding  or  succeeding  part  of  the 
sentence. 

Wrong :  It  would  be  hard  to  explain,  if  you  were  to  ask  me,  what 
the  trouble  was. 

Right:  If  you  were  to  ask  me  what  the  trouble  was,  it  would  be 
hard  to  explain. 

4.  Place  correlatives  so  that  there  can  be  no  doubt  as 
to  their  office.     Neither — nor,  both — and,  etc.,  are  frequently 
not  placed  next  to  the  expressions  they  are  meant  to  connect. 
See  §  84. 

Wrong:  He  neither  brought  a  trunk  nor  a  suit-case. 
Right :  He  brought  neither  a  trunk  nor  a  suit-case. 

Wrong :  He  not  only  received  money  from  his  father,  but  also  his 
mother. 

Right :  He  received  money  not  only  from  his  father,  but  also  from 
his  mother. 

Right :  He  not  only  received  money  from  bis  father,  but  also  re- 
ceived it  from  his  mother. 

5.  Omit  no  word  that  is  not  accurately  implied  in  the 
sentence. 

Wrong :  The  man  never  has,  and  never  will  be  succrssf  ul. 
Right:  The  man  never  has  been,  and  never  will  be  successful. 

Wrong :  It  is  no  concern  to  him. 
Right :  It  is  of  no  concern  to  him. 


128          PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR   AND   COMPOSITION 

6.  Use   a   summarizing  word,  in  general,  to  collect  the 
parts  of  a  long  complex  sentence. 

Republicans,  Democrats,  Socialists,  Prohibitionists,  and  Populists — • 
all  were  there. 

7.  Express    similar    thoughts,    when    connected    in    the 
same  sentence,  in  a  similar  manner. 

Bad:  I  decided  on  doing  the  work  that  night,  and  to  write  it  out 
on  the  typewriter. 

Good:  I  decided  to  do  the  work  that  night  and  to  write  it  out  on 
the  typewriter. 

Bad:  Textbooks  are  going  out  of  use  in  the  modern  law  schools, 
but  some  schools  still  use  them. 

Good:  Textbooks  are  going  out  of  use  in  the  modern  law  schools, 
but  in  some  they  are  still  used. 

Good :  Though  textbooks  are  going  out  of  use  in  modern  law  schools, 
they  are  still  used  in  some  of  them. 

Bad :  One  should  never  try  to  avoid  work  in  school,  for  you  always 
increase  your  trouble  by  doing  so. 

Good :  One  should  never  try  to  avoid  work  in  school,  for  one  always 
increases  his  trouble  by  doing  so. 

Good:  One  usually  only  increases  his  troubles  by  trying  to  avoid 
work  in  school. 

Exercise  68 

Point  out  and  correct  any  lack  of  coherence  that  exists  in  the 
following  sentences: 

1.  Chicken  lice  are  troubling  all  the  farmers  in  the  state. 

2.  The  statute  requires  that  one  study  three  years,  and  thr.t  you 
pass  an  examination. 

3.  He  is  home.  . 

4.  Rich  and  poor,  old  and  young,  large  and  small,  good  and  bad, 
were  in  the  assemblage. 

5.  He  both  presented  me  with  a  gold  piece  and  an  increase  in 
salary. 


SENTENCES  129 

6.  Tell  the  doctor,  if  he  comes  before  seven,  to  call. 

7.  When  the  dog  came  on  the  porch,  feeling  playful,  I  laid  aside 
my  paper. 

8.  I  only  knew  John. 

9.  The  cart  was  pulled  by  a  man  creaking  under  a  heavy  load. 

10.  John  told  his  father  that  his  coat  was  too  tight  for  him. 

11.  I  not  only  knew  the  president  but  also  the  whole  board  of 
directors. 

12.  The  boxes  were  full  of  broken  glass  with  which  we  made  fire. 

13.  Mrs.  Smith  wants  washing. 

14.  A  young  woman  died  very  suddenly  last  Sunday  while  I  was 
away  from  home  as  a  result  of  a  druggist's  mistake. 

15.  He  was  hit  in  the  discharge  of  his  duty  by  a  policeman. 

16.  A  dog  has  been  found  by  Mrs.  Jones  with  one  black  ear. 

17.  In  taking  the   census  innumerable  errors  are  made,  thus 
making  the  result  unreliable. 

18.  It  was  a  pleasure  to  see  them  work  and  their  good  nature. 

19.  The  boy  went  to  the  teacher  and  told  him  that  his  trouble 
was  that  he  used  the  wrong  book. 

20.  John  was  not  punished  because  of  his  ill  health,  and  he  was 
not  entirely  to  blame  for  it. 

21.  They  said  they  saw  them  coming  before  they  saw  them. 

22.  The  officers  arrested  the  men  and  they  were  then  locked 
up. 

23.  You  made  the  same  mistake  that  you  now  make  last  week. 

24.  Wishing  to  make  no  mistake  the  boy  was  told  by  him  to  see 
the  professor. 

25.  It  resulted  opposite  to  that  in  which  it  was  expected. 

26.  They  are  required  to  report  both  on  their  way  to  work  and 
coming  home. 

27.  Under  his  direction  we  were  taught  grammar  and  something 
of  composition  was  taken  up. 

28.  Taking  all  precautions,  a  watchman  is  on  duty  every  night. 

29.  We  tried  to  study,  but  didn't  do  any. 

30.  I  do  not  care  either  to  see  you  or  Henry. 

31.  He  has  a  number  of  kennels  with  many  dogs  scattered  over 
the  farm. 

32.  Mrs.  X.  wants  a  picture  of  her  children  painted  very  badly. 


130         PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION 

33.  One  of  the  drawbacks  to  the  work  is  that  time  is  very  scarce, 
in  this  way  limiting  what  can  be  done. 

34.  The  bicycle  was  easy  to  learn  to  ride,  which  I  did. 

35.  Rails  are  placed  along  the  sides  of  the  bridges,  and  horses 
are  forbidden  to  trot  over  them. 

36.  John  told  Henry  that  he  thought  he  needed  help. 

37.  He  has  to  stop  for  rest,  and  to  avoid  getting  too  far  ahead. 

38.  Board,  room,  clothes,  laundry,  and  amusements,  are  higher 
there  than  here. 

39.  Mathematics  is  not  only  necessary,  but  also  languages. 

40.  After  having  read  the  proof,  it  is  rolled  up,  and  you  mail  it 
back  to  the  printer. 

41.  The  baskets  were  unpacked  and  the  girls  waited  upon  them. 

42.  They  knew  all  that  was  to  be  learned,  including  John. 

43.  We  could  say  that  the  greater  part  of  us  had  both  seen  the 
Niagara  Falls  and  Canada. 

44.  Let  him  wear  a  loose  shoe  that  has  sore  feet. 

45.  Being  out  of  work,  and  as  I  did  not  wish  to  loaf,  I  started  to 
school. 

46.  He  tried  to  study  unsuccessfully,  and  in  the  end  failed. 

47.  He  built  a  house  for  his  wife  with  seven  windows. 

48.  He  sent  her  an  invitation  to  go  for  a  ride  on  the  back  of  hja 
business  card. 

49.  I  saw  five  automobiles  the  other  night  sitting  on  our  front 
door  step. 

50.  Mrs.  Smith  was  killed  last  night  while  cooking  in  a  dreadful 
manner. 

51.  Post  cards  are  both  increasing  in  variety  and  beauty. 

52.  He  neither  told  John  nor  his  father. 

53.  Mary  told  her  mother,  if  she  were  needed,  she  would  be 
called. 

54  He  bought  a  horse  when  ten  years  old. 

55.  The  child  the  parent  often  rebuked. 

56.  Sitting  on  a  chair  the  entire  house  could  be  watched. 

57.  Coming  along  the  road  a  peculiar  noise  was  heard  by  us. 

58.  Under  the  enforced  sanitary  laws  people  ceased  to  die  gradu- 
ally. 

59.  I  knew  him  as  a  physician  when  a  boy. 


SENTENCES  131 

60.  He  came  leading  his  dog  on  a  bicycle. 

61.  When  wanted  he  sent  me  a  letter. 

93.  Emphasis.  Emphasis  demands  that  the  sentence 
be  so  arranged  that  the  principal  idea  shall  be  brought  into 
prominence  and  the  minor  details  subordinated. 

1.  Avoid   weak   beginnings   and   weak   endings   in   the 
sentence. 

Bad :  He  was  a  student  who  did  nothing  right  as  a  rule. 
Good:  He  was  a  student,  who,  as  a  rule,  did  nothing  right. 

2.  A  change  from  the  normal  order  often  makes  a  great 
change  in  emphasis. 

Normal:  A  lonely  owl  shrieked  from  a  thick  tree  not  far  back  of  our 
camp. 

Changed :  From  a  thick  tree  not  far  back  of  our  camp  a  lonely  owl 
shrieked. 

3.  Where  it  is  suitable,  arrange  words  and  clauses  so  as 
to  produce  a  climax;  i.  e.,  have  the  most  important  come  last. 

Bad:  Human  beings,  dogs,  cats,  horses,  all  living  things  were 
destroyed. 

Good:  Cats,  dogs,  horses,  human  beings,  all  living  things  were 
destroyed. 

4.  Avoid  all  words  which  add  nothing  to  the  thought. 

Bad :  He  is  universally  praised  by  all  people. 
Good:  He  is  universally  praised. 

Bad:  The  darkness  was  absolutely  impenetrable,  and  not  a  thing 
could  be  seen. 

Good :  The  darkness  was  absolutely  impenetrable. 

Bad:  Mr.  Smith  bids  me  say  that  he  regrets  that  a  slight  indisposi- 
tion in  health  precludes  his  granting  himself  the  pleasure  of  accepting 
your  invitation  to  come  to  your  house  to  dine. 

Good :  Mr.  Smith  bids  me  say  that  he  regrets  that  sickness  pre- 
vents his  accepting  your  invitation  to  dine. 


132         PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 


Exercise  69 

Reconstruct  all  of  the  following  sentences  that  violate  the 
principles  of  emphasis: 

1.  Children,  women,  and  men  were  slain  without  pity. 

2.  I'll  prove  his  guilt  by  means  of  marked  money,  if  I  can. 

3.  Most  of  the  students  have  done  good  work,  although  some 
have  not. 

4.  Will  you  please  start  up  the  machine. 

5.  Where  ignorance  leads  to  a  condition  of  blissful  happiness,  it 
would  be  folly  to  seek  a  condition  of  great  wisdom. 

6.  A  man  having  foolishly  tried  to  board  a  moving  train  yester- 
day, was  killed  by  being  run  over. 

7.  As  a  maker  of  violins  he  has  never  had  an  equal  before  nor 
since. 

8.  All  his  friends  were  collected  together. 

9.  The  field  was  so  wet  that  we  could  not  play  on  it,  except 
occasionally. 

10.  Few  were  superior  to  him  as  a  sculptor. 

11.  Railway  companies,  trolley  companies,  cable  companies,  and 
even  hack  lines  were  affected  by  the  change. 

12.  Books  were  his  constant  companions,  and  he  was  with  them 
always. 

13.  That  great,  gaunt  mass  of  stones,  rock,  and  earth,  which 
falls  upon  your  vision  at  the  edge  of  the  horizon  of  your  view,  is  known 
by  the  appellation  of  Maxon  Mountain. 

14.  The  noise  of  trains  is  heard  ceaselessly  from  morning  till  night, 
without  stopping  at  all. 

15.  He  tried  to  do  right  so  far  as  we  know.  . 

16.  That  knowledge  is  the  impertant  thing  to  gain  beyond  all  else. 

94.     Euphony.     Euphony    demands    that    the    sentence 
be  of  pleasing  sound. 

1.     Avoid  repeating  the  same  word  in  a  sentence. 

Bad:  He  commanded  his  son  to  obey  his  commands. 


SENTENCES  133 

2.  Avoid  words  and  combinations  of  words  that  are  hard 
to  pronounce. 

Bad:  He  seized  quickly  a  thick  stick. 

3.  Avoid  a  rhyme  and  the  repetition  of  a  similar  syllable. 
Bad :  They  went  for  a  walk  in  order  to  talk. 

Exercise  70 

Correct  such  of  the  following  sentences  as  lack  euphony: 

1.  In  the  problems,  he  solved  one  once. 

2.  Most  of  the  time  he  does  the  most  he  can. 

3.  She  worries  about  what  to  wear  wherever  she  goes. 

4.  It  is  impossible  for  one  to  believe  that  one  so  changeable  can 
be  capable  of  such  work. 

5.  Those  are  our  books. 

6.  Every  time  there  was  a  chance  for  error,  error  was  made. 

7.  It  is  true  that  the  man  spoke  truly  when  he  said,  "Truth  is 
stranger  than  fiction." 

8.  The  well  must  have  been  well  made,  else  it  would  not  have 
served  so  well. 

9.  Everything  he  said  was  audible  throughout  the  auditorium. 

10.  He  acted  very  sillily. 

11.  He  is  still  worried  over  the  ill  fulfillment  of  John's  promise. 

12.  In  his  letters  there  is  something  fine  in  every  line. 

13.  They  ordered  the  members  of  the  order  to  pay  their  dues. 

Exercise  71.    A  General  Exercise  on  Sentences 

Revise  the  following  sentences.  In  parentheses  after  each 
sentence  is  the  number  of  the  paragraph  in  which  the  error 
involved  is  set  forth: 

1.  Not  only  should  we  go  to  church,  but  also  prayer-meeting. 
(92-4.) 

2.  In  the  East,  just  above  the  horizon,  Mars  may  be  readily 
seen  in  the  evenings.     (93-1.) 

10 


134         PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

3.  There  is  nothing  distinctive  about  the  style  of  the  book,  and 
it  tells  the  story  of  a  young  Russian  couple.     (91-1.) 

4.  The  nasal  noise  in  his  enunciation  was  displeasing.     (94-2.)  • 

5.  Books,  papers,  records,  money,  checks,  and  receipts,  were 
burned.     (92-6.) 

6.  I  tried  to  learn  to  write  plainly,  and  have  failed.     (92-7.) 

7.  He  has  not  and  never  will  succeed  in  doing  that.     (92-5.) 

8.  He  is  sick  as  a  result  of  the  picnic,  it  may  be.     (91-2.) 

9.  Finally  they  stepped  from  the  boat  into  the  water,  and  tried 
to  move  it  by  all  of  them  pushing.     (92-2.) 

10.  One  is  sure  to  become  dull  in  mind,  and  ill  in  health,  if  you 
fail  to  exercise.     (93-1.) 

11.  The  trip  was  comparatively  quickly  and  easily  made.     (94-1.) 

12.  She  was  of  ordinary  family,  but  he  didn't  think  of  criticizing 
that,  since  his  own  parents  were  of  the  German  peasantry.     (91-4.) 

13.  The  man  was  sentenced  to  either  be  hanged  or  life-imprison- 
ment.    (92-7.) 

14.  People  of  wealth  (and  it  is  by  no  means  an  exception  to  the 
rule)  fail  to  notice  the  misery  about  them.     (91-1-b.) 

15.  There  one  can  see  miles  and  miles.    For  there  are  no  moun- 
tains.    (91-3-a.) 

16.  She  told  her  that  she  thought  that  she  had  come  too  soon. 
(92-2.) 

17.  By  the  judge's  mistake,  he  was  made  a  free  man,  and  started 
on  a  career  of  crime  again.     (93-1.) 

18.  Flora  Macdonald  was  a  genuine  heroine.     (94-3.) 

19.  No  criticism  was  made  of  the  object,  but  of  the  means. 
(92-5.) 

20.  If  you  observe  the  relation  of  spelling  to  pronunciation,  you 
will  have  little  trouble  in  pronunciation.     (94-1.) 

21.  He   threw  the   stone   at  the   window.     And  then  he  ran. 
(91-3.) 

22.  The  reading  of  Poe's  stories  at  least  is  entertaining,  if  not 
elevating.     (92-3-b.) 

23.  John  the  lion  killed.     (92-3-b.) 

24.  He  arose  suddenly  upsetting  the  table.     (92-3-b.) 

25.  Bridget  was  a  faithful  servant,  she  never  failed  in  her  duties 
for  more  than  five  years.     (91-1-a.) 


SENTENCES  135 

26.  Instead  of  six,  now  four  years  only  are  to  be  spent  in  college. 
(92-3-a.) 

27.  We  started  down  the  river  toward  Harrisburg.     But  we  did 
not  get  very  far.     For  a  storm  soon  came  upon  us.     (91-3.) 

28.  He  says  that  he  has  the  book  at  his  home  which  belongs  to 
Anderson.     (92-2). 

29.  I  secured  a  horse  and  went  for  a  ride,  and  after  my  return, 
we  had  supper.     (91-4.) 

30.  Two  of  the  company  were  killed  in  the  battle.    The  others 
escaped  without  a  scratch.     (91-3.) 

31.  Different  from  most  persons,  he  will  not  mention  to  any  one 
his  faults.     (92-2.) 

32.  Not  only  is  the  book  interesting,  but  it  is  instructive  also. 
(93-1.) 

33.  May  not  only  he  be  satisfied  with  the  result,  but  delighted. 
(92-4.) 

34.  Main  Street  is  very  long,  and  the  hotels  are  on  Market  Street. 
(91-1.) 

35.  He  saw  the  money  passing  the  store  which  had  been  lost. 
(92-2.) 


CHAPTER  VIII 
CAPITALIZATION  AND  PUNCTUATION 

RULES  FOR  CAPITALIZATION 

95.  Capitalize  all  proper  nouns  and  adjectives  derived 
from  proper  nouns. 

France,  French,  Paris,  Parisian,  John,  etc. 

• 

96.  Capitalize  all  titles  when  used  with  proper  nouns. 
Capitalize,  also,  the  titles  of  governmental  officers  of  high  rank 
even  when   used  separately.     Do  not   capitalize  other  titles 
when  used  separately. 

Uncle  Sam,  Bishop  Anselm,  Professor  Morton,  the  Postmaster 
General,  Postmaster  Smith  of  Kelley  Cross  Roads,  the  postmaster  of 
Kelley  Cross  Roads. 

97.  Capitalize  the  important  words  in  titles  of  books. 

The  Master  of  Ballantrae,  The  Trail  of  the  Lonesome  Pine,  The 
Discovery  of  America. 

98.  Capitalize  the  first  word  of  every  sentence,  of  every 
line  of  poetry,  and  of  every  complete  sentence  that  is  quoted. 

He  said,  "Is  it  I  whom  you  seek?" 

He  said  she  was  a  "perfect  woman,  nobly  planned." 

99.  Capitalize  the  words,  mother,  father,  etc.,  when  used 
with  proper  names  of  persons,  or  when  used  without  a  pos- 
sessive pronoun  to  refer  to  some  definite  person.     Capitalize 
also,  common  nouns  in  phrases  used  as  proper  nouns. 

Father  John,  my  Uncle  John,  my  uncle,  if  Uncle  writes,  if  my  uncle 
writes,  along  the  river,  along  the  Hudson  River,  Madison  Square. 

136 


CAPITALIZATION  AND  PUNCTUATION  137 

100.  Capitalize    the    names,    North,    South,    East,    and 
West,  when  referring  to  parts  of  the  country;  words  used  to 
name  the  Deity;  the  words,  Bible  and  Scriptures;  and  the 
words  /  and  0,  but  not  oh  unless  it  is  at  the  beginning  of  a 
sentence. 

Exercise  72 

Secure  -five  examples  under  each  of  the  above  rules,  except 
the  last. 

RULES  FOR  PUNCTUATION 

101.  Punctuation  should  not  be  done  for  its  own  sake, 
but  simply  to  make  the  meaning  clearer;  never  punctuate 
where  no  punctuation  is  needed. 

The  following  rules  of  punctuation  are  generally  accepted: 

The  Period  (.) 

102.  Use  the  period  after  (1)  every  complete  sentence 
that  is  not  interrogative  nor  exclamatory;   (2)  after  every 
abbreviation;  and  (3)  after  Yes  and  No  when  used  alone. 

The  Interrogation  Point  (?) 

103.  Use   the   interrogation    point    after    every    direct 
question. 

The  Exclamation  Point  (!) 

104.  Use  the  exclamation  point  after  every  exclamatory 
sentence  or  expression. 

Alas!  It  is  too  late. 
Fire  if  you  dare! 

The  Comma  (,) 

105.  Use  the  comma  after  each  word  of  a  series  of  words 
that  all  have  the  same  grammatical  relation  to  the  rest  of  the 


138         PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

sentence,  unless  conjunctions  are  used  between  all  of   those 
words. 

Ours  is  a  red,  white,  and  blue  flag. 
He  talked,  smoked,  and  read. 
He  talked  and  smoked  and  read. 

Do  not,  however,  precede  the  series  by  a  comma. 

Wrong:  He  lectures  on,  Tuesdays,  Thursdays,  and  Fridays. 
Right  :  He  lectures  on  Tuesdays,  Thursdays,  and  Fridays. 


ne  comma  to  separate  two  adjectives  modify- 
ingtrie  same  noun,  but  not  if  one  modifies  both  the  other 
adjective  and  the  noun. 

An  honest,  upright  man. 
An  old  colored  man. 
A  soiled  red  dress. 

107.  Use  the  comma  to  set  off  non-emphatic  introductory 
words  or  phrases,  and  participial  phrases. 

John,  come  here. 

By  the  way,  did  you  see  Mary? 

After  having  done  this,  Caesar  crossed  the  Rubicon. 

Caesar  crossed  the  Rubicon,  thus  taking  a  decisive  step. 

108.  Use  the  comma  to  set  off  appositive   expressions 
(see  §  29,  Note  1),  or  a  geographical  name  that  limits  a  pre- 
ceding name. 

He  was  told  to  see  Dr.  Morton,  the  principal  of  the  school. 
Muncy,  Pennsylvania,  is  not  spelled  the  same  as  Muncie,  Indiana. 

109.  Use  the  comma  to  set  off  any  sentence  element  that 
is  placed  out  of  its  natural  order. 

If  it  is  possible,  he  will  do  it. 

To  most  people,  this  will  seem  absurd. 


CAPITALIZATION  AND  PUNCTUATION  139 

110.  Use  the  comma  to  set  off  slightly  parenthetical 
remarks  that  are  thrown  into  the  sentence.  If  the  break  is 
very  marked,  use  the  dash  or  parenthesis. 

That,  if  you  will  permit  me  to  explain,  cannot  be  done  without 
permission  from  the  police. 

Two  men,  Chase  and  Arnold,  were  injured. 
He,  himself,  said  it. 

J  111.  Use  the  comma  to  set  off  explanatory  or  non- 
restrictive  clauses,  but  not  to  set  off  restrictive  clauses.  (See 
§§  25  and  26.) 

Mr.  Gardner,  who  has  been  working  in  the  bank,  sang  at  the  church. 
But :  The  Mr.  Gardner  whom  you  know  is  his  brother. 

112.  Use  the  comma  to  separate  coordinate  clauses  that 
are  united  by  a  simple  conjunction. 

He  can  sing  well,  but  he  seldom  will  sing  in  public. 
He  doesn't  wish  to  sing,  and  I  do  not  like  to  urge  him. 

113.  Use  the   comma  to   separate  the   members   of  & 
compound  sentence  when  those  members  are  short  and  closely 
connected  in  their  thought. 

John  carried  the  suit-case,  I  the  hat  box,  and  William  the  umbrella. 

114.  Use  the  comma  to  separate  dependent  and  cori- 
ditional  clauses  introduced  by  such  words  as  if,  when,  though, 
unless  the  connection  be  close. 

He  did  not  stop,  though  I  called  repeatedly. 

Your  solution  is  right  in  method,  even  if  you  have  made  a  mistake 
in  the  work. 

But :  You  are  wrong  when  you  say  that. 

115.  Use  the  comma  to  set  off  short,  informal  quota- 
tions, unless  such  quotation  is  a  word  or  phrase  closely  woven 
into  the  sentence. 

William  said,  "  Good  morning";  but,  "  Hello,"  was  Henry's  greeting. 
But:  He  introduced  the  man  as  "my  distinguished  friend." 


140         PRACTICAL   GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 


116.  Use  the  comma  to  set  off  adverbs  and  adverbial 
phrases;  such  as,  however,  then,  also,  for  example,  so  to  speak, 
etc. 

Such  a  man,  however,  can  seldom  be  found. 

This  sentence,  for  example,  can  be  improved  by  changing  the  order. 

117.  Use  the  comma  whenever  for  any  reason  there  is 
any  distinct  pause  in  the  sentence  that  is  not  otherwise  indi- 
cated by  punctuation,  or  whenever  something  clearly  is  omitted. 

We  want  students,  not  boys  who  simply  come  to  school. 
Caesar  had  his  Brutus;  Charles  the  First,  his  Cromwell;     .     .     . 

The  Semicolon  (  ; ) 

118.  Use  the  semicolon  to  separate  the  clauses  of  a  com- 
pound sentence  that  are  long  or  that  are  not  joined  by  con- 
junctions. 

He  says  that  he  shall  teach  for  two  more  years;  then  he  shall 
probably  return  to  college. 

119.  Use  a  semicolon  to  separate  the  clauses  of  a  com- 
pound sentence  that  are  joined  by  a  conjunction,  only  when 
it  is  desirable  to  indicate  a  very  definite  pause. 

I  have  told  you  of  the  theft;  but  I  have  yet  to  tell  you  of  the  reason 
for  it. 

120.  Use  a  semicolon  to  separate  the  parts  of  a  compound 
or  a  complex  sentence,  when  some  of  those  parts  are  punctu- 
ated' by  commas. 

As  men,  we  admire  the  man  that  succeeds ;  but,  as  honest  men; 
we  cannot  admire  the  man  that  succeeds  by  dishonesty. 

Wrong:  He  spends  his  money  for  theatres,  and  dinners,  and  wine, 
and  for  his  family  he  has  not  a  cent.  .  • 

Right:  He  spends  his  money  for  theatres,  and  dinners,  and  wine; 
and  for  his  family  he  has  not  a  cent. 


CAPITALIZATION  AND  PUNCTUATION  141 

121.  Use  a  semicolon  before  certain  adverbs  and  ad- 
verbial expressions,   when  they  occur    in    the  body  of  the 
sentence  and  are  used  conjunctively;  such   as,   accordingly, 
besides,  hence,  thus,  therefore,  etc. 

I  do  not  care  to  see  the  game ;  besides,  it  is  too  cold. 
John  is  sick;  however,  I  think  he  will  be  here. 

122.  Use  the  semicolon  before  the  expressions,  namely, 
as,  that  is,  etc.,  or  before  their  abbreviations,  viz.,  i.e.,  etc., 
when  they  are  used  to  introduce  a  series  of  particular  terms, 
simple  in  form,  which  are  in  apposition  with  a  general  term. 

At  present  there  are  four  prominent  political  parties;  namely,  the 
Republican,  the  Democratic,  the  Prohibition,  and  the  Socialist. 

The  Colon  (:) 

123.  Use  the  colon  after  an  introduction  to  a  long  or 
formal   quotation,   before   an   enumeration,  or  after  a  word, 
phrase,  or  sentence  that  constitutes  an  introduction  to  some- 
thing that  follows. 

Mr.  Royer  says  in  his  letter:  "You  will  remember  that  I  promised 
to  send  you  a  copy  of  my  latest  musical  composition.  I  am  mailing 
it  to  you  to-day." 

There  are  four  essentials  of  a  legal  contract:  competent  parties, 
consideration,  agreement,  and  legal  subject  matter. 

124.  Use  the  colon  after  the  salutation  of  a  formal  letter. 
(See  §161,) 

The  Dash  (  —  ) 

125.  Use  the   dash  to  indicate   any  sudden  break  in 
thought  or  construction. 

I  am  pleased  to  meet  you,  Captain — what  did  you  say  your  name  is? 
The  man  I  met — I  refer  to  Captain  Jones — was  in  the  naval  service. 


142         PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION 

126.  Use  the  dash  in  the  place  of  the  comma  to  set  off 
more  definitely  some  part  of  a  sentence. 

I  was  always  lacking  what  I  needed  most — money. 

127.  Use  the  dash  preceded  by  a  comma  before  a  word 
which  sums  up  the  preceding  part  of  a  sentence. 

Democrats,  Republicans,  Prohibitionists,  Socialists,  and  Populists, — 
all  were  there. 

128.  Do  not  use  dashes  where  not  required  or  in  place 
of  some  other  mark  of  punctuation. 

The  Parenthesis  Marks  C    ) 

129.  Use  the  parenthesis  marks  only  to  enclose  a  state- 
ment that  is  thrown  into  the  sentence,  but  is  grammatically 
independent  of  it. 

He  belongs  (at  least  so  it  is  said)  to  every  secret  society  in  town. 

130.  Do  not  use  a  comma  or  other  punctuation  mark 
with  the  parenthesis  marks  unless  it  would  be  required  even 
if  there  were  no  parenthesis.     When  other  punctuation  is 
used  it  should  follow  the  parenthesis. 

They  sent  us  (as  they  had  agreed  to  do)  all  the  papers  in  the  case. 
We  expect  John  to  bring  his  roommate  home  with  him  (he  has 
been  very  anxious  to  do  so) ;  but  we  expect  no  one  else. 

Modern  usage  is  to  avoid  entirely  the  use  of  the  paren- 
theses. 

The  Bracket  [    ] 

131.  Use  the   bracket   to   enclose   some   statement   or 
word  of  the  writer  that  is  thrown  into  a  quotation  by  way  of 
explanation  or  otherwise. 

His  letter  reads:  "We  have  decided  to  get  Mr.  Howard  [his  cousin] 
to  deliver  the  address  ." 


CAPITALIZATION  AND  PUNCTUATION  143 

The  Quotation  Marks  ("     ") 

132.  Use  quotation  marks  to  enclose  quotations  of  the 
exact  language  of  another. 

The  Bible  says,  "Charity  suffereth  long." 

133.  Use   single   quotation    marks   (*     ')   to  enclose  a 
quotation  within  a  quotation. 

The  speaker  in  closing  said : "  I  can  imagine  no  more  inspiring  words 
than  those  of  Nelson  at  Trafalgar,  'England  expects  every  man  to 
do  his  duty/" 

134.  If    a    quotation    consists    of    several    paragraphs, 
quotation  marks  should  precede  each  paragraph  and  follow 
the  last. 

135.  Do  not  use  quotation  marks  to  enclose  each  sep- 
arate sentence  of  a  single  continuous  quotation. 

136.  Do  not  use  quotation  marks  to  enclose  well-known 
nicknames,  titles  of  books,  proverbial  phrases,  or  to  indicate 
one's  own  literary  invention. 

137.  Examine  the  location  of  quotation  marks  and  other 
punctuation  in  the  following  sentences: 

Wrong:  "You  may  do  as  you  wish,  he  said,  if  you  only  wish  to 
do  right." 

Right:  "You  may  do  as  you  wish,"  he  said,  "if  you  only  wish  to 
do  right." 

Wrong:  "Can  you  come,"  she  asked? 
Right:  "Can  you  come?"  she  asked. 

The  Apostrophe  (') 

138.  Use  the  apostrophe  to  mark  certain  plurals  and 
possessives.     See  §§  13  and  15. 

Use  the  apostrophe  to  indicate  the  omission  of  letters. 
Doesn't,  Can't,  What's  the  matter?  •    - 


144         PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

The  Hyphen  (-) 

139.  Use  the  hyphen  when  a  word  must  be  divided  at 
the  end  of  a  line. 

Never  divide  words  of  one  syllable,  nor  short  words;  such 
as,  though,  through,  also,  besides,  over,  etc. 

Never  divide  words  except  at  the  end  of  a  syllable,  and 
always  put  the  hyphen  at  the  end  of  the  first  line,  not  at  the 
beginning  of  the  second. 

Wrong  division:  int-end,  prop-ose,  superintendent,  expre- 
ssion. 

Proper  division:  in-tend,  pro-pose,  superintendent,  expres- 
sion. 

In  writing  it  is  good  usage  not  to  divide  a  word  like 
expression  by  placing  ex  on  one  line  and  the  rest  of  the  word 
on  the  next  line. 

140.  Use  the  hyphen  to  divide  certain  compound  words. 
No  rule  can  be  given  by  which  to  determine  when  com- 
pounded words   demand  the  hyphen.     Only  custom  deter- 
mines. 

Always  use  a  hyphen  with  to-day,  to-morrow,  and  to-night. 

Exercise  73 

Punctuate  and  capitalize  the  following  selections.  For  in- 
structions as  to  paragraphing  and  the  arrangement  of  conversation, 
see  g§  143  and  144: 

1.  however  father  had  told  us  not  to  expect  good  accommoda- 
tions because  it  is  a  very  small  town 

2.  tomorrow  if  it  is  a  clear  day  we  will  go  to  pittsburgh 

3.  will  that  be  satisfactory  was  his  question 

4.  it  doesnt  make  any  difference  said  she  whether  you  come 
or  not 

5.  whats  the  matter  with  you  John 


CAPITALIZATION  AND  PUNCTUATION  145 

6.  John  replied  i  mean  that  poem  that  begins  the  curfew  tolls 
the  knell  of  parting  day     . 

7.  and  that  day  i  was  only  a  child  then  I  travelled  all  alone  to 
new  york  city 

8.  he  is  a  member  at  least  he  claims  to  be  of  the  presbyterian 
church 

9.  the  author  says  that  the  hero  of  Waterloo  Wellington  was  a 
general  of  great  military  training 

10.  buddhist  brahmin  mohammedan  Christian  Jewish  every  re- 
ligion was  represented 

11.  his  letter  will  tell  what  he  wants  or  will  attempt  to  do  so 

12.  you  will  please  hand  in  the  following  sentences  one  three 
seven  and  nine 

13.  four  presidents  have  been  Unitarians  namely  the  two  adams 
fillmore  and  taf t 

14.  the  verse  to  which  you  refer  is  as  follows 

the  boast  of  heraldry  the  pomp  of  power 
all  that  beauty  all  that  wealth  eer  gave 
await  alike  the  inevitable  hour 
the  paths  of  glory  lead  but  to  the  grave 

15.  a  noun  is  the  name  of  something  as  william  france  book  cat 

16.  the  train  leaves  at  eight  therefore  we  shall  have  to  rise  at 
seven  at  latest 

17.  the  different   points  discussed  are  these  first  the  history  of 
the  divine  right  theory  second  the  exponents  of  the  theory  and  third 
the  result  of  the  theory 

18.  in  the  first  problem  divide  in  the  second  multiply 

19.  if  the  break  is  slight  use  a  comma  if  it  is  more  perceptible  use 
a  semicolon  if  it  is  very  sharp  use  a  period 

20.  william  if  you  hear  me  answer 

21.  he  told  mother  that  he  must  go  home  at  least  that  is  what 
she  understood 

22.  as  noise  it  is  an  undoubted  success  as  music  it  is  a  flat  failure 

23.  that  may  be  true  but  i  still  doubt  it 

24.  separate  the  clauses  by  a  comma  unless  the  connection  be 
close 

25.  even  though  that  be  true  it  does  not  prove  what  we  want 
proved 


146  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION 

26.  mary  said  yes  but  helen  said  no 

27.  he  is  called  the  peerless  leader     . 

28.  such  a  man  for  example  was  lincoln 

29.  if  as  you  say  it  ought  to  be  done  why  dont  you  do  it 

30.  that  too  is  a  mistake 

31.  that  is  wool  not  cotton  as  you  seem  to  think 

32.  the  english  are  stolid  the  french  lively 

33.  in  that  case  let  us  have  war 

34.  such  an  opinion  i  may  say  is  absurd 

35.  alas  when  i  had  noticed  my  mistake  it  was  too  late 

36.  the  house  which  was  built  by  smith  is  on  the  corner  of  a  large 
lot 

37.  he  means  the  house  that  has  green  shutters 

38.  those  are  all  good  books  but  none  of  them  will  do 

39.  dickens  wrote  nicholas  nickleby  hugo  les  miserables  thackeray 
henry  esmond 

40.  he  is  a  good  student  and  also  a  great  athlete 

41.  he  gave  me  a  red  silk  handkerchief 

42.  having  assigned  the  lesson  he  left  the  room 

43.  royers  address  is  danville  illinois 

44.  you  will  find  it  discussed  in  paragraphs  one  two  and  three 

45.  i  had  classes  under  the  president  dr  harris 

46.  moreover  naxon  the  cashier  has  fled 

47.  oh  that  is  what  you  mean  is  it 

48.  for  this  you  will  need  a  piece  of  clean  white  paper 

49.  the  bible  says  the  lord  thy  god  is  a  jealous  god 

50.  the  boundary  of  uncle  sams  lands  is  the  rio  grande  river 

51.  theodore  roosevelt  is  not  the  only  strenuous  man  in  history 

52.  the  north  quickly  recovered  from  the  civil  war 

53.  he  told  mother  to  write  to  my  uncle  about  it 

54.  he  said  then  why  are  you  here 

55.  in  that  army  old  young  and  middle  aged  men  served  for  their 
country  could  no  longer  raise  a  picked  army 

56.  he  was  told  to  ask  the  principal  professor  morton 

57.  in  the  same  town  muncy  lives  smith  now  a  respected  man 

58.  a  peasant  named  ali  according  to  a  good  old  oriental  story 
needing  badly  a  donkey  for  some  urgent  work  decided  to  apply  to  his 
neighbor  mehmed  whose  donkey  ali  knew  to  be  idle  in  the  stable  that  day 


CAPITALIZATION  AND  PUNCTUATION  147 

i  am  sorry  my  dear  neighbor  said  mehmed  in  reply  to  alis  request  but 
i  cannot  please  you  my  son  took  the  donkey  this  morning  to  the  next 
village  i  assure  you  insisted  ali  i  shall  take  the  very  best  care  of  him 
my  dear  neighbor  can  you  not  take  my  word  demanded  mehmed 
with  a  show  of  anger  i  tell  you  the  donkey  is  out  but  at  this  point  the 
donkey  began  to  bray  loudly  there  that  is  the  donkey  braying  now 
well  said  the  justly  indignant  mehmed  if  you  would  rather  take  my 
donkeys  word  than  my  word  we  can  be  friends  no  longer  and  under  no 
circumstances  can  i  lend  you  anything. 

59.  a  coroner  was  called  upon  to  hold  an  inquest  over  the  body 
of  an  italian  the  only  witness  was  a  small  boy  of  the  same  nationality 
who  spoke  no  english  the  examination  proceeded  thus  where  do  you 
live  my  boy  the  boy  shook  his  head  do  you  speak  english  another 
shake  of  the  head  do  you  speak  french  another  shake  do  you  speak 
german  still  no  answer  how  old  are  you  no  reply  have  you  father  and 
mother  no  reply  do  you  speak  italian  the  boy  gave  no  sign  well  said 
the  coroner  i  have  questioned  the  witness  in  four  languages  and  can 
get  no  ansv.  3r  it  is  useless  to  proceed  the  court  is  adjourned. 

NOTE.  Further  exercise  in  punctuation  may  be  had  by  copying 
without  the  marks  of  punctuation  selections  from  books,  and  afterwards 
inserting  the  proper  marks. 


CHAPTER  IX 
THE  PARAGRAPH 

141.  The  Paragraph  is  a  connected  series  of  sentences 
all  dealing  with  the  development  of  a  single  topic.  Where 
the  general  subject  under  discussion  is  very  narrow,  the 
paragraph  may  constitute  the  whole  composition;  but  usually, 
it  forms  one  of  a  number  of  subtopics,  each  dealing  with 
some  subdivision  of  the  general  subject.  For  each  one  of 
these  subtopics  a  separate  paragraph  should  be  made. 

The  purpose  of  the  paragraph  is  to  aid  the  reader  to  com- 
prehend the  thought  to  be  expressed.  The  paragraph  groups 
in  a  logical  way  the  different  ideas  to  be  communicated.  It 
gives  rest  to  the  eye  of  the  reader,  and  makes  clearer  the  fact 
that  there  is  a  change  of  topic  at  each  new  paragraph. 

143.  Paragraph  Length.  There  is  no  fixed  rule  govern- 
ing the  proper  length  of  the  paragraph,  but,  probably,  no 
paragraph  need  be  more  than  three  hundred  words  in  length. 
If  the  whole  composition  is  not  more  than  two  hundred  and 
fifty  words  in  length,  it  will  not  often  need  to  be  subdivided 
into  paragraphs.  In  a  letter,  paragraphing  should  be  more 
frequent  than  in  other  compositions. 

Paragraphing  should  not  be  too  frequent.  If  paragraph- 
ing is  too  frequent,  by  making  each  minute  subdivision  of 
equal  importance,  it  defeats  its  purpose  of  grouping  ideas  about 
some  general  topic. 

143.  Sometimes  a  sentence  or  even  a  part  of  a  sentence 
may  be  set  off  as  a  separate  paragraph  in  order  to  secure 
greater  emphasis.  This,  however,  is  only  using  the  para- 
graph for  a  proper  purpose — to  aid  in  gaining  clearness. 

148 


THE  PARAGRAPH  149 

144.  Paragraphing    of    Speech.     In    a    narrative,    each 
direct  quotation,  tpgether  with  the  rest  of  the  sentence  of 
which  it  is  a  part,  should  constitute  a  separate  paragraph. 
This  rule  should  be  always  followed  in  writing  a  conversation. 
Examine  the  following: 

A  certain  Scotch  family  cherishes  this  anecdote  of  a  trip  which 
Dr.  Samuel  Johnson  made  to  Scotland.  He  had  stopped  at  the  house 
of  this  family  for  a  meal,  and  was  helped  to  the  national  dish.  During 
the  meal  the  hostess  asked: 

"Dr.  Johnson,  what  do  you  think  of  our  Scotch  broth?" 

"Madam,"  was  the  answer,  "in  my  opinion  it  is  fit  only  for 
pigs." 

"Then  have  some  more,"  said  the  woman. 

The  only  case  in  which  the  quoted  words  can  be  detached 
from  the  remainder  of  the  sentence  is  where  they  form  the  end 
of  the  sentence  after  some  introductory  words,  as  in  the  second 
paragraph  of  the  example  just  given. 

145.  Indentation  of  the  Paragraph.     The  first  sentence 
of  each   new  paragraph  should  be  indented.     See  example 
under  §  144.     No  other  sentence  should  be  so  indented. 

146.  The  essential  qualities  which  each  paragraph  should 
have  are:  Unity,  Coherence,  and  Emphasis. 

Unity.  Unity  requires  that  the  paragraph  should  deal  with 
only  one  subject,  and  should  include  nothing  which  does  not 
have  a  direct  bearing  on  that  subject.  Thus,  in  the  following 
paragraph,  the  italicized  sentence  violates  the  principle  of 
Unity,  because,  very  obviously  it  belongs  to  some  other 
paragraph : 

Never  did  any  race  receive  the  Gospel  with  more  ardent  enthusiasm 
than  the  Irish.  St.  Patrick,  a  zealous  priest,  was  thought  to  have  banished 
the  snakes  from  the  island.  So  enthusiastic  were  the  Irish,  that,  not 
content  with  the  religious  work  in  Ireland,  the  Irish  Church  sent  out 
its  missionaries  to  Scotland,  to  Germany,  and  to  the  Alps  and  Apen- 
nines. It  founded  religious  houses  and  monasteries.  .  .  . 
11 


150         PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION 

Separate  paragraphs  should  not  be  made  of  matter  which 
belongs  together.  If  the  ideas  can  all  be  fairly  included 
under  one  general  topic,  unity  demands  that  they  be  grouped 
in  one  paragraph.  Thus,  in  describing  the  route  followed 
in  a  certain  journey,  one  should  not  use  a  separate  paragraph 
for  each  step  in  the  journey. 

Wrong; 

In  returning  to  the  University,  I  went  from  Pittsburgh  to  Cleveland. 

Then  I  took  a  berth  for  the  night  on  one  of  the  lake  steamers  run- 
ning from  Cleveland  to  Detroit. 

From  Detroit  I  completed  the  journey  to  Ann  Arbor  on  an  early 
train  the  next  morning. 

If  unity  is  to  be  secured,  not  only  must  all  the  ideas 
brought  out  in  the  paragraph  deal  with  the  same  topic,  but 
also,  they  must  be  developed  in  some  consistent,  systematic 
order.  A  certain  point  of  view  should  be  generally  main- 
tained as  to  tense,  subject,  and  manner  of  expression. 

147.  How  to  Gain  Unity.     Careful  thought  before  begin- 
ning the  paragraph   is   necessary  if  unity   is  to  be  gained. 
The  topic  of  the  paragraph  should  be  determined,  and  should 
be  clearly  indicated  by  a  topic  sentence.     Usually  this  topic 
sentence  should  be  placed  near  the  beginning  of  the  para- 
graph.    The  first  sentence  is  the  clearest  and  best  place  for 
it.     The  topic  sentence  need  not  be  a  formal  statement  of 
the  subject  to  be  discussed,  but  may  be  any  sentence  that 
shows  what  is  to  be  the  central  idea  of  the  paragraph. 

With  the  topic  determined,  there  are  various  ways  of 
developing  it.  It  may  be  developed  by  repetition;  by  adding 
details  and  specific  instances  to  the  general  statement;  by 
presenting  proof;  by  illustration;  or  by  showing  cause  or 
effect. 

148.  Examine   the   following   paragraphs.     Each    pos- 
sesses the  quality  of  unity.    The  topic  sentence  in  each  case 
is  italicized 


.     THE  PARAGRAPH  151 

To  rule  was  not  enough  for  Bonaparte.  He  wanted  to  amaze,  to 
dazzle,  to  overpower  men's  souls,  by  striking,  bold,  magnificent,  and 
unanticipated  results.  To  govern  ever  so  absolutely  would  not  have 
satisfied  him,  if  he  must  have  governed  silently.  He  wanted  to  reign 
through  wonder  and  awe,  by  the  grandeur  and  terror  of  his  name, 
by  displays  of  power  which  would  rivet  on  him  every  eye,  and  make 
him  the  theme  of  every  tongue.  Power  was  his  supreme  object; 
but  power  which  should  be  gazed  at  as  well  as  felt,  which  should  strike 
men  as  a  prodigy,  which  should  shake  old  thrones  as  an  earthquake, 
and,  by  the  suddenness  of  its  new  creations,  should  awaken  something 
of  the  submissive  wonder  which  miraculous  agency  inspires. 

From  The  Character  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  by  Channing. 

There  is  something  in  the  very  season  of  the  year  that  gives  a  charm 
to  the  festivity  of  Christmas.  At  other  times  we  derive  a  great  portion 
of  our  pleasures  from  the  mere  beauties  of  Nature.  Our  feelings  sally 
forth  and  dissipate  themselves  over  the  sunny  landscape  and  we 
"live  abroad  and  everywhere."  The  song  of  the  bird,  the  murmur 
of  the  stream,  the  breathing  fragrance  of  spring,  the  soft  voluptuous- 
ness of  summer,  the  golden  pomp  of  autumn;  earth  with  its  mantle  of 
refreshing  green,  and  heaven  with  its  deep  delicious  blue  and  its  cloudy 
magnificence — all  fill  us  with  mute  but  exquisite  delight,  and  we  revel 
in  the  luxury  of  mere  sensation.  But  in  the  depth  of  winter,  when 
Nature  lies  despoiled  of  every  charm,  and  wrapped  in  her  shroud  of 
sheeted  snow,  we  turn  our  gratifications  to  moral  sources.  The  dreari- 
ness and  desolation  of  the  landscape,  the  short  gloomy  days  and  dark- 
some nights,  while  they  circumscribe  our  wanderings,  shut  in  also  our 
feelings  from  rambling  abroad,  and  make  us  more  keenly  disposed 
for  the  pleasures  of  the  social  circle.  Our  thoughts  are  more  concen- 
trated; our  friendly  sympathies  more  aroused.  We  feel  more  sensibly 
the  charm  of  each  other's  society,  and  are  brought  more  closely  to- 
gether by  dependence  on  each  other  for  enjoyment.  Heart  calleth 
unto  heart,  and  we  draw  our  pleasures  from  the  deep  wells  of  living 
kindness  which  lie  in  the  quiet  recesses  of  our  bosoms ;  and  which,  when 
resorted  to,  furnish  forth  the  pure  element  of  domestic  felicity. 

From  Christmas,  by  Washington  Irving. 

149.  Coherence.  Coherence  demands  that  each  para- 
graph shall  be  perfectly  clear  in  its  meaning,  and  that  it  be 


152         PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

so  constructed  that  it  may  be  readily  grasped  by  the  reader. 
The  relation  of  sentence  to  sentence,  of  idea  to  idea,  must  be 
clearly  brought  out.  The  whole  fabric  of  the  paragraph  must 
be  woven  together — it  must  not  consist  of  disconnected 
pieces. 

150.  How  to  Gain  Coherence.  Where  vividness  or  some 
other  quality  does  not  gain  coherence  in  the  sentence,  it  is 
usually  gained  by  the  use  of  words  or  phrases  which  refer 
to  or  help  to  keep  in  mind  the  effect  of  the  preceding  sentences, 
or  which  show  the  bearing  of  the  sentence  on  the  paragraph 
topic.  These  words  may  be  of  various  sorts;  as,  it,  this  view, 
however,  in  this  way,  etc.  Sometimes  the  subject  is  repeated 
occasionally  throughout  the  paragraph,  or  is  directly  or  in- 
directly indicated  again  at  the  end  of  the  paragraph. 

Examine  carefully  the  following  selections.  Note  the 
italicized  words  of  coherence,  and  note  in  each  case  how 
they  aid  the  flow  of  thought  from  sentence  to  sentence,  and 
help  to  keep  in  mind  the  paragraph  topic. 

I  will  give  you  my  opinion  and  advice  in  regard  to  the  two  books 
you  have  named.  The  first  is  interesting  and  easy  to  read.  It  is, 
also,  by  no  means  lacking  in  the  value  of  the  information  it  presents. 
But  the  second,  while  it  is  no  less  interesting  and  equally  valuable  in 
its  contents,  seems  to  me  far  more  logical  and  scholarly  in  its  construc- 
tion. In  addition  to  this  I  think  you  will  find  it  cheaper  in  price,  by 
reason  of  its  not  being  so  profusely  illustrated.  Therefore,  I  should 
advise  you  to  procure  the  second  for  your  study.  Either,  indeed,  will 
do,  but  since  you  have  a  choice,  take  the  better  one. 

A  Husbandman  who  had  a  quarrelsome  family,  after  having  tried 
in  vain  to  reconcile  them  by  words,  thought  he  might  more  readily 
prevail  by  an  example.  So  he  called  his  sons  and  bade  them  lay  a 
bundle  of  sticks  before  him.  Then  having  tied  them  up  Into  a  fagot, 
he  told  the  lads,  one  after  another,  to  take  it  up  and  break  it.  They 
all  tried,  but  tried  in  vain.  Then,  untying  the  fagot,  he  gave  them  the 
sticks  to  break  one  by  one:  This  they  did  with  the  greatest  ease, 
Then  said  the  father :  "  Thus,  my  sons,  as  long  as  you  remain  united; 


THE  PARAGRAPH  153 

you  are  a  match  for  all  your  enemies;  but  differ  and  separate,  and 
you  are  undone."  M 'sop's  Fables. 

Examine  also  the  selections  under  §§  205  and  206. 

151.  Emphasis.  The  third  quality  which  a  paragraph 
should  possess  is  emphasis.  The  paragraph  should  be  so 
constituted  as  to  bring  into  prominence  the  topic  or  the  point 
it  is  intended  to  present.  The  places  of  greatest  emphasis  are 
usually  at  the  beginning  and  at  the  end  of  the  paragraph. 
In  short  paragraphs  sufficient  emphasis  is  generally  gained 
by  having  a  topic  sentence  at  the  beginning.  In  longer 
paragraphs  it  is  often  well  to  indicate  again  the  topic  at  the 
end  by  way  of  summary  in  order  to  impress  thoroughly  on 
the  reader  the  effect  of  the  paragraph. 

Exercise  74 

The  few  following  suggestions  for  practice  in  paragraph  con* 
struction  are  given  by  way  of  outline.  Additional  subjects  and 
exercises  will  readily  suggest  themselves  to  teacher  or  student. 

These  topics  are  intended  to  apply  only  to  isolated  paragraphs 
— "paragraph  themes"  As  has  been  suggested,  more  latitude  in 
the  matter  of  unity  is  allowed  in  compositions  so  brief  that  more 
than  one  paragraph  is  unnecessary. 

Write  paragraphs : 

1.  Stating  the  refusal  of  a  position  that  has  been  offered  to  you, 
and  giving  your  reasons  for  the  refusal. 

2.  Describing  the  appearance  of  some  building.    Give  the  general 
appearance  and  then  the  details. 

3.  Explaining  how  to  tie  a  four-in-hand  necktie. 

4.  Stating  your  reasons  for  liking  or  not  liking  some  book  or  play. 

5.  Describing  the   personal   appearance  of  some  one  of   your 
acquaintance. 

6.  To  prove  that  the  world  is  round. 

7.  To  prove  that  it  pays  to  buy  good  shoes.     (Develop  by  illus- 
tration.) 


154  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION 

8.  Showing  by  comparison  that  there  are  more  advantages  in 
city  life  than  in  country  life. 

Write  paragraphs  on  the  following  subjects: 

9.  My  Earliest  Recollection. 

10.  The  Sort  of  Books  I  Like  Best. 

11.  Why  I  Like  to  Study  X  Branch. 

12.  My  Opinion  of  My  Relatives. 

13.  The  Man  I  Room  With. 

14.  Why  I  Was  Late  to  Class. 

15.  What  I  Do  on  Sundays. 

16.  How  to  Prevent  Taking  Cold. 

17.  How  to  Cure  a  Cold. 

18.  My  Best  Teacher. 

19.  My  Favorite  Town. 

20.  Why  I  Go  Fishing. 

21.  My  Favorite  Month. 

22.  What  Becomes  of  My  Matches. 

23.  Baseball  is  a  Better  Game  than  FootbalL 

24.  The  View  from  X  Building. 

25.  Why  I  Go  to  School. 

26.  My  Opinion  of  Rainy  Days. 

27.  My  Most  Useful  Friend. 

28.  Why  I  Dislike  Surprise  Parties. 

29.  Why  I  Like  to  Visit  at  X's. 

30.  The  Police  Service  of  X  Town.     ' 


CHAPTER  X 
LETTER-WRITING 

NOTE  TO  TEACHER. — For  the  purpose  of  training  in  composition; 
in  the  more  elementary  work,  letter-writing  affords  probably  the  most 
feasible  and  successful  means.  Letter-writing  does  not  demand  any 
gathering  of  material,  gains  much  interest,  and  affords  much  latitude 
for  individual  tastes  in  topics  and  expression.  Besides,  letter-writing 
is  the  field  in  which  almost  all  written  composition  will  be  done  after 
leaving  school ;  and  so  all  training  in  school  will  be  thoroughly  useful. 
For  this  reason,  it  is  suggested  that  letter-writing  be  made  one  of  the 
chief  fields  for  composition  work. 

In  Exercise  75,  are  given  a  number  of  suggestions  for  letter-writing. 
Others  will  readily  occur  to  the  teacher. 

THE  HEADING 

152.  Position  of  Heading.     In  all  business  letters  the 
writer's  address  and  the  date  of  writing  should  precede  the 
letter  and  be  placed  at  the  upper  right  hand  side  of  the  sheet 
not  less  than  an  inch  from  the  top.     This  address  and  date 
is  called  the  heading.     In  friendly  letters  the  parts  of  the 
heading  are  sometimes  placed  at  the  end  of  the  letter  on  the 
left  side  a  short  distance  below  the  body  of  the  letter.     This 
is  permissible,  but  to  place  it  at  the  beginning  in  all  letters  is 
more  logical  and  customary.     Never  write  part  of  the  heading 
at  the  beginning  and  part  at  the  end  of  the  letter. 

153.  Order  of  Heading.     The  parts  of  the  heading  should 
be  sufficient  to  enable  the  accurate  addressing  of  a  reply,  and 
should  be  in  the  following  order:  (1)  the  street  address,  (2) 
the  town  or  the  city  address,  (3)  the  date.     If  all  cannot  be 
easily  placed  on  one  line,  two  or  even  three  lines  should  be 

155 


156          PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

used;  but,  in  no  case,  should  the  above  order  be  varied. 
Examples : 

Wrong:  March  31,  1910,  Red  Oaks,  Iowa,  210  Semple  Street. 
Right:  210  Semple  Street,  Red  Oaks,  Iowa,  March  31,  1910. 
Right:  210  Semple  Street,  Red  Oaks,  Iowa, 

March  31,  1910. 
Right:  210  Semple  Street, 

Red  Oaks,  Iowa, 
March  31,  1910. 

If  only  two  lines  are  used,  put  the  writer's  address  on  the 
first  line  and  the  date  on  the  second. 

Wrong:  January  19,  1910,  Sharon,  Pennsylvania, 
The  Hotel  Lafayette. 

Right:  The  Hotel  Lafayette,  Sharon,  Pennsylvania, 
January  19,  1910. 

154.  Punctuation    of    Heading.     Place    a   period    after 
each  abbreviation  that  is  used.     In  addition  to  this,  place 
commas  after  the  street  address,  after  the  town  address,  after 
the  state  address,  and   after  the  number  of  the  day  of  the 
month.     Place  a  period  after  the  number  of  the  year.     Ex- 
amine the  correct  address  under  §  153, 

155.  Faults  to  be  Avoided  in  Headings.     Avoid  the  use 
of  abbreviations  in  the  friendly  letter,  and  avoid  their  too 
frequent  use  in  the  business  letter. 

It  is  better  to  avoid  abbreviating  any  but  the  longer 
names  of  states. 

Avoid  all  such  abbreviations  as  the  following:  St.  for 
Street;  Ave.  for  Avenue;  Apart,  for  Apartments;  Chi.  for 
Chicago;  Phila.  for  Philadelphia. 

Wrong  :  Hardie  Apart.,  Pbg.,  Pa. 

Right  :  Hardie  Apartments,  Pittsburg,  Pa. 

Do  not  use  the  sign  #  before  the  street  number. 


LETTER-WRITING  157 

Do  not  omit  the  word  Street. 

Wrong:  229  Market. 
Right:  229  Market  Street. 

Do  not  write  the  date  thus:  9/10/10.  Represent  the 
numbers  by  figures,  not  words.  See  §§  75  and  76.  Do  not 
use  st.,  rd.,  etc.,  after  the  number  of  the  day. 

Wrong:  9/8/09. 

Right:  September  8,  1909. 

Wrong:  September  the  Ninth,  Nineteen  Hundred  and  Nine. 
Right:  September  9,  1909. 

Wrong:  March  10th,  1910. 
Right:  March  10,  1910. 

THE  INSIDE  ADDRESS 

156.  Position  of  Inside  Address.     In  strictly  commercial 
letters  the  name  and  the  address  of  the  person  to  whom  the 
letter  is  being  sent  should  come  at  the  beginning  of  the  letter, 
and  should  begin  flush  with  the  margin  at  the  left  side  of  the 
page,  and  a  little  below  the  level  of  the  heading.     The  second 
line  of  the  inside  address  should  be  set  in  a  little  from  the 
margin.     See  model  letters  under  §  174. 

In  formal  friendly  letters  and  in  letters  of  a  non-com- 
mercial nature,  the  inside  address  should  stand  a  little 
below  the  bottom  of  the  letter  at  the  left  side  of  the  page. 
In  informal  friendly  letters  the  inside  address  may  be 
omitted. 

157.  Punctuation    of    Inside   Address.     In  punctuating 
the  inside  address,  place  a  period  after  each  abbreviation 
that  is  used.     In  addition  to  this,  place  a  comma  after  the 
name  of  the  addressee,  a  comma  after  the  street  address, 
if  one  be  given,  and  after  the  name  of  the  town  or  city.     Place 
a  period  after  the  name  of  the  state  or  country.     Examine 
the  correct  inside  address  under  §  174. 


158         PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION 

158.  Faults  to  be  Avoided  in  the  Inside  Address.  Do 
not  omit  the  town,  city,  or  state  address  from  the  inside 
address. 

Wrong:  Mr.  E.  P.  Griffith, 
My  dear  Sir: 

Right:  Mr.  E.  P.  Griffith. 

Muskogee,  Oklahoma. 
My  dear  Sir: 

Right:  Mr.  E.  P.  Griffith, 

221  Fiji  Avenue, 

Muskogee,  Oklahoma. 
My  dear  Sir: 

Do  not  omit  proper  titles. 

Wrong:  R.  R.  Stolz, 

Muncy,  Pennsylvania. 

Right:  Mr.  R.  R.  Stolz, 

Muncy,  Pennsylvania. 

When  two  or  more  men  are  addressed,  do  not  omit  the  title 
Mr.,  before  the  name  of  each  of  the  men,  unless  their  names 
constitute  a  partnership  or  trading  name. 

Right :  Jones  &  Smith,    (firm  name) 

New  York  City. 
Gentlemen: 

Right:  Mr.  Jones  and  Mr.  Smith,  (not  a  firm  name) 

New  York  City. 
Gentlemen: 

Avoid  all  abbreviations  of  titles  preceding  the  name  ex- 
cept Mr.,  Mrs.,  Messrs.,  and  Dr.  Abbreviations  of  titles 
placed  after  the  name,  such  as,  Esq.,  D.D.,  A.M.,  etc.,  are 
proper. 

Do  not  use  Mr.  and  Esq.  with  the  same  name. 


LETTER-WRITING  159 

Avoid  all  other  abbreviations  except  in  case  of  a  state 
with  a  very  long  name.  In  this  case  it  is  permissible  to 
abbreviate,  but  it  is  better  form  to  write  the  name  in  full. 
United  States  of  America  may  be  abbreviated  to  U.  S.  A. 

Wrong:  Merch.  Mfg.  Co., 

N.  Y.  C. 
Gentlemen: 

Right:  The  Merchants'  Manufacturing  Company. 

New  York  City. 
Gentlemen : 

Wrong:  Mr.  William  Shipp, 

Bangor,  Me. 
Dear  Sir: 

Right:  Mr.  William  Shipp, 

Bangor,  Maine. 
Dear  Sir: 

Do  not  place  a  period  after  the  title  Miss.     Miss  is  not 
an  abbreviation. 

THE  SALUTATION 

159.  Position    of    Salutation.    The    salutation    should 
begin  flush  with  the  margin  and  on  the  line  next  below  the 
inside  address.     See  correctly  written  letters  under  §  174. 

160.  Form  of  Salutation.     The  salutation  varies  with 
the  form  of  the  letter  and  the  relations  between  the  writer 
and  receiver  of  the  letter.     Where  the  parties  are  strangers  or 
mere  business  acquaintances  the  most  common  salutations 
for  individuals  are,  Dear  Sir,  Dear  Madam,  or  My  dear  Sirt 
My  dear  Madam.     For  a  group  of  persons,  or  for  a  company 
or  a  partnership,  Gentlemen,  Dear  Sirs,  Dear    Madams    or 
Mesdames   are  used.     In  less    formal  business   letters    such 
salutations  as,  My  dear  Mr.  Smith,  or  Dear  Miss  Jaekel  may 
be  used 


160         PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

In  the  case  of  informal  and  friendly  letters,  as  in  business 
and  formal  letters,  the  salutation  to  be  used  is  largely  a  matter 
of  taste.  The  following  are  illustrations  of  proper  salutations 
for  friendly  letters :  My  dear  Doctor,  Dear  Cousin,  Dear  Cousin 
Albert,  Dear  Miss  Jaekel,  Dear  Major,  My  dear  Miss  Smith, 
Dear  William,  Dear  Friend,  etc. 

It  is  considered  more  formal  to  prefix  My  to  the  salu- 
tation. 

It  is  over  formal  to  use  simply  Sir  or  Madam  in  any  letter, 
or  to  use  Dear  Sir  or  Dear  Madam  when  writing  to  a  familiar 
friend. 

If  one  uses  a  very  familiar  salutation,  such  as  Dear  Brown, 
Dear  John,  etc.,  it  is  better  to  put  the  inside  address  at  the 
close  of  the  letter,  or  to  omit  it. 

161.  Punctuation   of   Salutation.     Punctuate   the   salu- 
tation with  a  colon,  except  in  informal  letters,  when  a  comma 
may  be  used. 

162.  Faults  to  be  Avoided   in   the  Salutation.     Use  no 
abbreviations  except  Dr.,.  Mr.,  Mrs.     Do  not  use  the  abbre- 
viation Dr.,  when  that  title  is  used  as  a  final  word  in  a  salu- 
tation. 

Wrong:  My  dear  Maj.  Wren: 
Right:  My  dear  Major  Wren: 

Wrong :  My  dear  Dr. : 
Right :  My  dear  Doctor : 

Do  not  use  a  name  alone  as  a  salutation. 

Wrong:  Mr.  W.  W.  Braker: 

Will  you  please  inform    .    .    . 

Right:  Mr.  W;  W.  Braker, 

Muncy,  Pennsylvania. 
Dear  Sir: 

Will  you  please  inform    .    .    e 


LETTER-WRITING  161 

In  the  salutation  capitalize  only  the  important  nouns 
and  the  first  word  of  the  salutation. 

Wrong:  My  Dear  Sir: 
Right:  My  dear  Sir: 

Wrong:  My  very  Dear  Friend: 
Right:  My  very  dear  Friend: 

Wrong:  Dear  sir: 
Right:  Dear  Sir: 

THE  BODY  OF  THE  LETTER 

163.  The  Subject  Matter  of  the  Letter.    In  friendly  letters 
much  latitude  is  allowed  in  the  body  of  the  letter,  but  business 
letters  should  be  brief  and  to  the  point.     No  letter,  however, 
should  be  lacking  in  the  courteous  forms  or  in  completeness. 

164.  Form  of  Body.     The  body  of  the  letter  usually 
begins  on  the  line  below  the  salutation  and  is  indented  the 
same  distance  from  the  margin  as  any  other  paragraph  would 
be  indented.     See  model  letters  under  §  174. 

In  commercial  letters  paragraph  divisions  are  made  more 
frequently  than  in  other  composition.  Each  separate  point 
should  be  made  the  subject  of  a  separate  paragraph. 

165.  Faults  in  Body  of  the  Letter.     In  letters  that  are 
intended  to  be  complete  and  formal,  avoid  the  omission  of 
articles,  pronouns,  and  prepositions.     Avoid  also  expressions 
that    are    grammatically    incomplete.     Only    in    extremely 
familiar  and  hasty  letters  should  the  "telegraph  style"  be 
adopted. 

Bad:  Received  yours  of  the  10th.  Have  had  no  chance  to  look 
up  man.  Will  do  so  soon. 

Good:  I  have  received  your  letter  of  the  tenth.  I  have  had  no 
chance  as  yet  to  look  up  the  man,  but  I  will  do  so  soon. 

Bad:  Address  %  John  Smith,  Mgr.  Penna.  Tele. 
Good :  Address  in  care  of  John  Smith,  Manager  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Telegraph. 


162         PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION 

Bad:  In  reply  will  say  .    .    . 
Good:  In  reply  I  wish  to  say  .    .    . 

Bad:  Yours  of  the  10th  at  hand. 

Good:  Your  letter  of  the  10th  is  at  hand. 

Bad :  Your  favor  received  .    .    . 

Good :  We  have  received  your  letter  .    .    . 

Bad:  Enclose  P.  O.  money  order  for  $2. 

Good:  We  enclose  post  office  money  order  for  two  dollars,  ($2). 

Bad:  We  have  read  your  plan.    Same  is  satisfactory. 
Good:  We  have  read  your  plan,  and  it  is  satisfactory. 

Avoid  the  use  of  abbreviations  in  the  letter. 

It  is  well  to  avoid  the  too  frequent  use  of  the  pronoun  / 
in  the  letter,  though  care  must  be  taken  not  to  carry  this 
caution  to  extremes.  /,  however,  should  not  be  omitted 
when  necessary  to  the  completeness  of  the  sentence.  Do  not 
try  to  avoid  its  use  by  omitting  it  from  the  sentence,  but  by 
substituting  a  different  form  of  sentence. 

There  is  no  objection  to  beginning  a  letter  with  7. 

Punctuate  the  letter  just  as  carefully  as  any  other  com- 
position. 

Excepting  in  letters  of  a  formal  nature,  there  is  no  ob- 
jection to  the  use  of  colloquial  expressions  such  as  can't, 
don't,  etc. 

Unless  you  have  some  clear  reason  to  the  contrary,  avoid 
the  use  of  expressions  that  have  been  used  so  much  that  they 
are  worn  out  and  often  almost  meaningless.  Such'  expressions 
as  the  following  ones  are  not  wrong,  but  are  often  used  when 
they  are  both  inappropriate  and  unnecessary. 

Your  esteemed  favor  is  at  hand. 
In  reply  permit  me  to  say       .    . 
We  beg  leave  to  advise  .    .     . 
We  beg  to  suggest  .    .    . 


LETTER-WRITING  163 

Thanking  you  for  the  favor,  we  are  .    .    . 

Please  find  enclosed  .     .    . 

In  answer  to  your  favor  of  the  tenth  .     .     . 

We  take  pleasure  in  informing  you  .     .     . 

In  reply  would  say  . 

We  beg  to  acknowledge  receipt  of  your  favor  .    .    . 

Awaiting  your  further  orders,  we  are  .     .    . 

THE  CLOSE 

166.  Final   Words.     Business    letters    frequently    close 
with  some  final  words,  such  as,  Thanking  you  again  for  your 
kind  assistance,  I  am  .  .  .  ,  Awaiting  your  further  orders,  we 
are  .  .  .  ,  etc.      These  expressions  are  not  wrong,  but  are 
often  used  when  not  at  all  necessary. 

167.  The    Complimentary   Close.     The    complimentary 
close   should  be  written  on  a  separate  line  near  the  middle 
of  the  page,   and   should  begin  with  a  capital  letter.     Ap- 
propriateness is  the  only  guide  to  the  choice  of  a  complimen- 
tary close. 

The  following  complimentary  closes  are  proper  for  business 
letters: 

Yours  respectfully,  Yours  very  truly, 

Yours  truly,  Very  truly  yours, 

The  following  complimentary  closes  are  proper  for  friendly 
letters: 

Yours  sincerely,  Very  truly  yours, 

Yours  very  truly,  Your  loving  son, 

Yours  cordially,  Affectionately  yours, 

168.  Faults  in  the  Close.     Do  not  use  abbreviations,  such 
as,  Yrs.  respy.,  yrs.  try.,  etc. 

169.  The  Signature  of  the  Writer.     The  letter  should  be 
so  signed  as  to  cause  no  doubt  or  embarrassment  to  any  one 
addressing  a  reply.     The  signature  should  show  whether  the 


164          PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

writer  is  a  man  or  a  woman;  and,  if  a  woman,  it  should  in- 
dicate whether  she  is  to  be  addressed  as  Miss  or  Mrs.  In 
formal  letters  it  is  customary  for  a  woman  to  indicate  how  she 
is  to  be  addressed  by  signing  her  name  in  the  following  manner: 

Sincerely  yours, 

Caroline  Jones. 
(Mrs.  William  Jones). 

Very  truly  yours, 

(Miss)  Matilda  Stephens. 

In  signing  a  company  name  write  first  the  name  of  the 
company,  and  after  it  the  name  of  the  writer.  Example: 

D.  Appleton  &  Company, 
per  J.  W.  Miller. 

MISCELLANEOUS  DIRECTIONS 

170.  In  beginning  the  letter,  place  the  address  and  date 
an  inch  and  a  half  or  two  inches  below  the  top  of  the  page. 

Leave  a  margin  of  about  a  half  inch  or  more  on  the  left 
side  of  the  page.  Indent  the  beginning  of  each  paragraph 
about  an  inch  or  more  beyond  the  margin. 

In  using  a  four-page  sheet,  write  on  the  pages  in  their 
order,  1,  2,  3,  4. 

In  the  correctly  written  forms  of  letters  under  §  174  ob- 
serve the  indentation  of  the  lines.  The  first  line  of  the  inside 
address  should  be  flush  with  the  margin,  the  second  somewhat 
set  in.  The  salutation  should  begin  flush  with  the  margin. 
The  body  of  the  letter  should  begin  on  the  line  below  the 
salutation,  and  some  distance  in  from  the  margin. 

THE  OUTSIDE  ADDRESS 

171.  Position   of   Outside   Address.     Place   the   address 
on  the  envelope  so  that  it  balances  well.     Do  not  have  it  too 
far  toward  the  top,  too  close  to  the  bottom,  nor  too  far  to 
one  side.     See  addressed  envelope  under  §  173.      Place  the 


LETTER-WRITING  165 

stamp  squarely  in  the  upper  right-hand  corner,  not  obliquely 
to  the  sides  of  the  envelope. 

172.  Punctuation  of  Outside  Address.     Punctuation  may 
be  omitted  at  the  end  of  the  lines  of  the  address.     If  it  is 
used,  place  a  period  at  the  end  of  the  last  line,  and  a  comma 
after  each  preceding  line. 

Within  the  lines  punctuate  just  as  you  would  in  the  inside 
address. 

If  an  abbreviation  ends  the  line,  always  place  a  period 
after  it,  whether  the  other  lines  are  punctuated  or  not. 

173.  Faults  in  the  Outside  Address.     Avoid  the  use  of 
abbreviations  except  those  that  would  be  proper  in  the  inside 
address  or  in  the  heading.     See  §§  155  and  158. 

Do  not  use  the  sign  #  before  the  number  of  the  street 
address.  No  letters  or  sign  at  all  should  be  used  there.  See 

§155. 

Compare  the  following  forms  of  addresses: 

Bad:          Col.  Wm.  Point, 

#200  John  St., 
Trenton,  N.  J. 

Good:       Colonel  William  Point, 
200  John  Street, 
Trenton, 

New  Jersey. 

Good:       Colonel  William  Point 

200  John  Street 
Trenton,  New  Jersey 

Bad:          Chas.  Jones, 

%  Edward  Furrey, 
Wilkinsburg,  Pa. 

Good:        Mr.  Charles  Jones 

In  care  of  Mr.  Edward  Furrey 
Wilkinsburg 

Pennsylvania 


166          PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION 

Bad:          Rev.  Walter  Berlin 

Good:        The  Reverend  Walter  Bertin 

Bad:         Pres.  of  Bucknell  Univ. 

Good:        For  the  President  of  Bucknell  University. 

A  properly  arranged  address: 


201 


174.  CORRECTLY  WRITTEN  LETTERS 

200  Mead  Avenue, 

Wilkinsburg,  Pennsylvania, 

January  12,  1909. 
Mr.  A.  M.  Weaver, 

Cambridge,  Massachusetts. 
My  dear  Sir: 

I  have  received  your  letter  of  inquiry  about  the  sale  of  my  law 
books.  I  will  say  in  answer  that  at  present  I  have  no  intention  of 
selling  them. 

You  may,  however,  be  able  to  secure  what  you  want  from  H.  B. 
Wassel,  Esquire,  Commonwealth  Building,  Pittsburg,  Pennsylvania. 
He  has  advertised  the  sale  of  a  rather  extensive  list  of  books. 

Very  truly  yours, 

Charles  M.  Howell. 


LETTER-WRITING  167 

Muncy,  New  York,  January  12,  1909. 
My  dear  Professor  Morton: 

We  are  trying  to  establish  in  the  school  here  some  permanent 
system  of  keeping  students'  records.  I  have  been  told  that  you  have 
worked  out  a  card  method  that  operates  successfully.  If  you  can  give 
me  any  information  in  regard  to  your  method,  I  shall  consider  it  a 
very  great  favor.  I  enclose  a  stamped  envelope  for  your  reply. 

Very  sincerely  yours, 

Harris  A.  Plotts. 
Professor  E.  A.  Morton, 
Braddock,  Pennsylvania. 

Braddock,  Pennsylvania,  January  12,  1909. 
My  dear  Mrs.  Hagon : 

I  wish  to  thank  you  for  your  kind  aid  in  securing  Captain 
Howard  to  deliver  one  of  the  lectures  in  our  course.  Only  your 
influence  enabled  us  to  get  so  good  a  man  at  so  low  a  price. 

Very  sincerely, 

Sylvester  D.  Dunlop. 

173  State  Street,  Detroit,  Michigan, 

January  23,  1910. 
To  whom  it  may  concern: 

It  gives  me  great  pleasure  to  testify  to  the  character,  ability  and 
attainments  of  Mr.  E.  J.  Heidenreich.  He  has  been  a  trusted  personal 
associate  of  mine  for  more  than  twenty  years.  He  may  be  counted 
upon  to  do  successfully  anything  that  he  is  willing  to  undertake. 

Harry  B.  Hut  chins. 
My  dear  Walter: 

I  am  to  be  in  the  city  only  a  few  more  weeks  before  leaving  per- 
manently. Before  I  go,  I  should  like  to  have  you  come  out  and  take 
dinner  with  me  some  evening.  How  would  next  Wednesday  at  six 
o'clock  suit  you?  If  you  can  come  at  that  time,  will  you  please  write 
or  telephone  to  me  sometime  before  Tuesday? 

Very  cordially  yours, 

Paul  B.  Vandine. 
6556  Broad  Street, 

Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania, 
March  30,  1909. 


168         PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION 

The  Lafayette,  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania, 

March  31,  1909. 
My  dear  Paul: 

I  shall  be  very  glad  to  accept  your  invitation  to  take  dinner  with 
you  before  you  take  final  leave  of  the  city.  The  time  you  mention, 
next  Wednesday  evening,  is  entirely  satisfactory  to  me. 

I  was  more  than  pleased  to  receive  your  invitation,  for  the  prospect 
of  talking  over  old  times  with  you  is  delightful. 

Sincerely  yours, 

Walter  Powell. 

Napoleon,  Ohio,  February  28,  1908. 
The  American  Stove  Company, 

Alverton,  Pennsylvania. 
Gentlemen: 

With  this  letter  I  enclose  a  check  for  ten  dollars,  for  which  please 
send  me  one  of  your  small  cook  stoves,  of  the  sort  listed  in  your  cata- 
logue on  page  two  hundred  thirty-eight. 

It  will  be  a  great  favor  if  you  will  hasten  the  shipment  of  this  stove 
as  much  as  possible,  since  it  is  urgently  needed  in  a  summer  cottage 
that  I  have  for  rent. 

Very  truly  yours, 

Ernest  Burrows. 

223  Siegel  Street,  New  York  City, 

June  5,  1910. 
The  Acme  Tapestry  Company, 

Syracuse,  New  York. 
Dear  Sirs : 

Will  you  please  send  me  a  price  list  and  descriptive  catalogue  of 
your  tapestries  and  carpets? 

I  have  been  commissioned  to  purchase  all  the  tapestries  and  carpets 
that  may  be  needed  for  the  new  Young  Women's  Christian  Association 
Building,  on  Arlington  Avenue,  this  city.  I  understand  that  institu- 
tions of  this  sort  are  allowed  a  ten  per  cent  discount  by  you.  Will 
you  please  tell  me  if  this  is  true? 

Very  truly  yours, 

Anna  R.  Fleegor. 
(Mrs.  C.  C.  Fleegor.) 


LETTER-WRITING  169 

Lewisburg,  Pennsylvania,  May  10,  1910. 
The  Merchant's  Electric  Wiring  Company, 

Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania. 
Gentlemen : 

I  am  writing  to  ask  if  you  can  give  me  employment  in  your  work 
for  about  ten  weeks  beginning  June  15th.  I  am  at  present  taking  a 
course  in  electrical  engineering  at  Bucknell  University,  and  am  in 
my  sophomore  year.  It  is  my  plan  to  gain  some  practical  experience 
in  various  sorts  of  electrical  work  during  the  vacations  occurring  in 
my  course.  This  summer  I  want  to  secure  practical  experience  in 
electric  wiring. 

If  you  wish  references  as  to  my  character  and  ability,  I  would 
refer  you  to  Mr.  William  R.  Stevenson,  Lewisburg,  Pennsylvania,  and 
to  Mr.  Harry  E.  McCormick,  Superintendent  of  the  Street  Railways 
Company,  Danville,  Illinois. 

Salary  is  a  very  slight  object  to  me  in  this  work,  and  I  shall  be 
willing  to  accept  whatever  compensation  you  may  "see  fit  to  offer  me. 

Respectfully  yours, 

Harvey  H.  Wilkins. 

Drawsburg,  Ohio,  May  21,  1910. 
My  dear  Norman : 

I  have  just  heard  of  your  good  fortune  and  hasten  to  assure  you 
of  my  sincere  pleasure  in  the  news.     May  you  find  happiness  and 
prosperity  in  your  new  location.     But  do  not  forget  that  your  old 
friends  are  still  living  and  will  always  be  interested  in  your  welfare. 
Your  affectionate  cousin, 

Mary  E.  Johnston. 

223  Holbrook  Avenue,  Wilkinsburg,  Indiana. 

November  10,  1908. 
The  Jefferson  Life  Insurance  Company, 

Norfolk,  Virginia. 
Gentlemen : 

I  am  the  holder  of  Policy  Number  2919  in  your  company.  In  that 
Policy,  which  was  taken  out  about  ten  years  ago,  my  occupation  is 
stated  to  be  carpenter.  Lately  I  have  changed  occupations,  and  am 


170         PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

now  engaged  in  conducting  a  store.  If,  in  order  to  maintain  the 
validity  of  my  policy,  the  change  of  occupation  should  be  recorded  on 
your  books,  will  you  please  have  the  proper  entry  made. 

I  should  like  to  know  if  at  the  present  time  my  policy  has  any  cask 
surrender  value,  and  if  so,  what  that  value  is. 

Very  truly  yours, 

Arthur  J.  Pearse. 


Bunnell  Building,  Scranton,  Pennsylvania, 

April  20,  1909. 
Mr.  James  R.  Elliot, 

Germantown,  Colorado. 
My  dear  Elliot: 

Will  you  please  send  me,  as  soom  as  you  conveniently  can,  the 
addresses  of  George  English,  Ira  S.  Shepherd,  and  G.  N.  Wilkin- 
son. 

This  request  for  addresses  may  lead  you  to  think  that  wedding 
invitations  are  to  be  looked  for.     Your  conclusion,  I  am  happy  to 
say,  is  a  correct  one;  I  expect  to  be  married  sometime  in  June. 
Cordially  your  friend, 

Charles  R.  Harris. 


The  Anglo-American  Hotel,  Vienna,  Austria, 

March  19,  1907. 
Dear  Aunt  Emily: 

You  will  no  doubt  be  surprised  when  you  read  the  heading  of  this 
letter  and  learn  that  we  are  now  in  Vienna.  We  had  really  intended, 
as  I  wrote  to  you,  to  spend  the  entire  months  of  March  and  April  in 
Berlin,  but  a  sudden  whim  sent  us  on  to  this  city. 

Until  we  came  to  Vienna  I  had  but  a  very  vague  idea  of  the  city, 
and  thought  it  a  place  of  little  interest.  I  was  surprised  to  find  it  a 
place  of  so  many  beautiful  buildings  and  beautiful  streets.  Still  more 
was  I  surprised  to  find  what  a  festive,  stylish  place  it  is.  Paris  may 
have  the  reputation  for  fashion  and  frivolity,  but  Vienna  lacks  only 
the  reputation;  it  certainly  does  not  lack  the  fashionable  and  frivolous 
air. 

The  other  day  in  one  of  the  shops  here,  I  discovered,  as  I  thought, 


LETTER-WRITING  171 

a  very  fine  miniature.      I  purchased  it  to  present  to  you,  and  have 
already  sent  it  by  post.     It  ought  to  reach  you  as  soon  as  this  letter. 
We  have  not  received  the  usual  letter  from  you  this  week,  but 
suppose  it  is  because  we  so  suddenly  changed  our  address.    The 
necessity  of  forwarding  it  from  Berlin  has  probably  caused  the  delay. 
Father  and  Mother  join  in  sending  their  love  to  you. 
Your  affectionate  niece, 

Mary. 

NOTES  IN  THE  THIRD  PERSON 

175.  It   is   customary   and   desirable   to   write   certain 
kinds  of  notes  in  the  third  person.     Such  a  note  contains 
nothing  but  the  body  of  the  note,  followed  at  the  left  side  of 
the  paper,  by  the  time  and  the  place  of  writing. 

Use  no  pronoun  but  that  of  the  third  person.  Never 
use  any  heading,  salutation,  or  signature.  Use  no  abbrevia- 
tions except  Mr.,  Mrs.,  or  Dr.  Spell  out  all  dates. 

176.  Correctly  Written  Notes  in  the  Third  Person. 

Mrs.  Harry  Moore  requests  the  pleasure  of  Mr.  Leighou's  com- 
pany at  dinner  on  Sunday,  June  the  first,  at  two  o'clock. 
1020  Highland  Street, 

Washington,  Pennsylvania, 
May  the  twenty-fifth. 

The  Senior  Class  of  Bucknell  University  requests  the  pleasure  of 
Professor  and  Mrs.  Morton's  company  on  Tuesday  evening,  June  the 
tenth,  at  a  reception  in  honor  of  Governor  Edwin  S.  Stuart. 

Bucknell  University, 

June  the  fifth. 

Mr.  Leighou  regrets  that  a  previous  engagement  prevents  his  accept- 
ance of  Mrs.  Moore's  kind  invitation  for  Sunday,  June  the  first. 
110  Braddock  Avenue, 
May  the  twenty-seventh. 


172          PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 


Exercise  75 

Make  use  of  some  of  the  following  suggestions  for  letters.  Have 
every  letter  complete  in  all  its  formal  parts.  Fill  in  details 
according  to  your  own  fancy: 

1.  A  letter  to  the  X  Express  Company  of  your  town,  complaining 
of  their  delay  in  delivering  a  package  to  you. 

2.  A  letter  to  a  friend,  thanking  him  for  the  entertainment  afforded 
you  on  a  recent  visit  to  his  house. 

3.  A  letter  to  the  X  Book  Company,  inquiring  what  dictionary 
they  publish,  the  prices,  etc. 

4.  A  letter  to  Mr.  X,  asking  him  for  a  position  in  his  office,  and 
stating  your  qualifications. 

5.  A  letter  congratulating  a  friend  on  some  good  fortune  that  has 
befallen  him. 

6.  A  letter  asking  a  friend  his  opinion  of  some  business  venture 
that  you  are  thinking  of  entering  upon.     Explain  the  venture. 

7.  A  letter  to  your  home,  describing  to  your  parents  your  school. 

8.  A  letter  to  a  friend,  telling  him  of  the  chance  meeting  with 
some  friend. 

9.  A  letter  to  the  X  store  ordering  from  them  material  for  covering 
a  canoe  that  you  are  building.     Explain  your  needs. 

10.  A  letter  describing  experiences  which  you  had  on  your  vaca- 
tion. 

11.  A  letter  arranging  to  meet  a  friend  at  a  certain  place,  time, 
etc. 

12.  A  letter  explaining  how  to  reach  your  home  from  the  railway 
station.     Leave  no  doubt. 

13.  A  letter  describing  some  new  acquaintance. 

14.  A  letter  telling  some  humorous  story  that  you  have  recently 
heard. 

15.  A  letter  to  a  relative  telling  him  the  recent  occurrences  in 
your  town. 

16.  A  letter  detailing  your  plans  for  the  succeeding  year. 

17.  A  letter  describing  some  play  which  you  have  recently  at- 
tended. 


LETTER-WRITING  173 

18.  A  letter  to  your  parents  explaining  to  them  why  you  failed 
in  an  examination. 

19.  A  letter  inviting  a  friend  to  visit  you  at  a  certain  time. 

20.  A  letter  accepting  an  invitation  to  visit  a  friend. 

21.  A  letter  stating  your  opinions  on  some  public  question;  as, 
prohibition,  woman  suffrage,  etc. 

22.  A  letter    discussing  the  baseball  prospects  in  your  town  or 
school. 

23.  A  letter  to  the  X  school,  inquiring  about  courses  of  study 
given,  prices,  etc. 

24.  A  formal  third  person  invitation  to  a  reception  given  to  some 
organization  to  which  you  belong. 

25.  A  formal  third  person  acceptance  of  such  invitation. 

26.  A  travel  letter  describing  your  visit  to  various  places  of  in- 
terest. 

27.  A  letter  describing  a  day's  outing  to  a  friend  who  was  unable 
to  go  with  you. 

28.  A  letter  describing  a  house  to  a  man  who  wishes  to  purchase  it. 

29.  A  letter  to  a  schoolmate  describing  to  him  various  events 
which  happened  at  school  during  his  absence. 

30.  A  letter  in  reply  to  an  inquiry  from  a  friend  as  to  what  outfit 
he  will  need  to  take  along  on  a  prospective  camping  trip. 

31.  A  letter  describing  to  a  friend  the  appearance  and  character- 
istics of  a  dog  which  you  have  lately  bought. 

32.  A  letter  to  your  parents  telling  them  of  your  boarding  place, 
your  recent  visit  to  the  theater,  your  meeting  an  old  friend,  your  work, 
your  new  acquaintances.     Arrange  the  topics  and  make  the  transition 
as  smooth  as  possible. 

33.  A  letter  telling  about  an  intended  celebration  by  the  school 
of  some  national  holiday. 

34.  A  letter  about  a  lecture  that  you  recently  attended.     Describe 
the  place,  occasion,  lecturer,  address,  etc. 

35.  A  letter  telling  a  friend  the  first  impression  you  formed  of 
your  school. 


CHAPTER   XI 
THE  WHOLE  COMPOSITION 

177.  By  the  term  Whole  Composition  or  Theme  is  meant 
a  composition  consisting  of  a  number  of  related  paragraphs 
all  dealing  with  one  general  subject,  whether  the  composition 
be  a  narration,  a  description,  or  an  exposition. 

The  following  general  principles  applying  to  the  construc- 
tion of  the  whole  composition  are  stated  for  the  guidance  of 
the  inexperienced  writer. 

178.  Statement  of  Subject.     Care  should  be  used  in  the 
statement  of  the  subject.     It  should  not  be  so  stated  as  to  be 
more  comprehensive  than  the  composition,   but  should  be 
limited  to  cover  only  what  is  discussed.     For  a  small  essay, 
instead  of  a  big  subject,  take  some  limited  phase  of  that  sub- 
ject: 

Too  broad:  College,  Photography,  Picnics. 

Properly  limited :  A  College  Education  as  an  Aid  to  Earning  Power, 
Does  College  Life  Make  Loafers?  Photography  as  a  Recreation,  How 
Picnics  Help  the  Doctor. 

179.  The  Outline.     Just  as  in  the  building  of  a  house  or 
of  a  machine,  if  anything  creditable  is  to  be  attained,  a  care- 
fully made  plan  is   necessary   before   entering  on   the   con- 
struction; so  in  the  writing  of  an  essay  or  theme,  there  should 
be  made  some  plan  or  outline,  which  will  determine  what  dif- 
ferent things  are  to  be  discussed,  and  what  is  to  be  the  method 
of  developing  the  discussion.     By  the  inexperienced  writer, 
at  least,  a  composition  should  never  be  begun  until  an  out- 
line has  been  formed  for  its  development.     As  soon  as  the 
material  for  the  composition  is  in  hand,  the  outline  should 

174 


THE  WHOLE  COMPOSITION  175 

be  made.  It  should  be  an  aid  in  the  construction  of  the 
composition,  not  a  thing  to  be  derived  after  the  composition 
is  completed.  Only  by  the  previous  making  of  an  outline 
can  a  logical  arrangement  be  gained,  topics  properly  subor- 
dinated, and  a  suitable  proportion  secured  in  their  dis- 
cussion. 

In  the  previous  chapter  on  the  paragraph  the  following 
different  subtopics,  were  discussed: 

Definition  of  Paragraph.  How  to  Secure  Unity. 

Length  of  Paragraph.  How  to  Secure  Coherence. 

The  Topic  Sentence.  Too  Frequent  Paragraphing. 

Unity  in  the  Paragraph.  Paragraphing  of  Speech. 

Coherence  in  the  Paragraph.  Paragraphing  for  Emphasis. 

Examples  of  Unity.  Examples  showing  how  Unity  is 
Purpose  of  the  Paragraph.  Destroyed. 

Emphasis  in  the  Paragraph.  The  Paragraph  Theme. 

If  the  topics  had  been  taken  up  in  the  above  irregular  order, 
a  sorry  result  would  have  been  obtained.  Compare  the  above 
list  of  topics  with  the  following  arrangement  of  the  same 
topics  in  a  logical  outline. 

THE  PARAGRAPH 

1.  Its  definition  and  purpose. 

2.  Its  length. 

Paragraphing  of  speech. 
Paragraphing  for  emphasis. 
Too  frequent  paragraphing. 
33    Its  essential  qualities. 
A.    Unity. 

Definition. 

Examples  showing  how  unity  is  destroyed. 

How  to  secure  unity. 

The  topic  sentence. 

Development  of  topic  sentence. 

Examples  showing  unity. 


176         PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION 

B.  Coherence. 

Definition. 

How  to  secure  coherence. 

Examples  showing  coherence. 

C.  Emphasis. 

Places  of  emphasis  in  the  paragraph. 

4.  Practical  construction  of  the  paragraph. 

5.  The  paragraph  theme. 

180.     Use  and  Qualities  of  the  Outline.     The  use  of  the 

outline  is  not  restricted  to  an  expository  composition,  as 
above,  but  is  also  necessary  in  narration  and  description. 
Usually,  in  a  narration,  the  order  of  time  in  which  events 
occurred,  is  the  best  order  in  which  to  present  them,  though 
other  arrangements  may  frequently  be  followed  with  very 
good  reason. 

In  a  description  different  methods  may  be  followed. 
Often  a  general  description  is  given,  and  then  followed  by  a 
statement  of  various  details.  Thus,  in  describing  a  building, 
one  might  first  describe  in  a  general  way  its  size,  its  general 
style  of  architecture,  and  the  impression  it  makes  on  the 
observer.  Then  more  particular  description  might  be  made 
of  its  details  of  arrangement  and  peculiarities  of  architecture 
and  ornamentation. 

The  wThole  object  of  the  outline  is  to  secure  clearness  of 
statement  and  to  avoid  confusion  and  repetition.  To  secure 
this  end  the  outline  should  present  a  few  main  topics  to 
which  all  others  either  lead  up  or  upon  which  they  depend. 
These  topics  or  subtopics  should  all  bear  some  apparent  and 
logical  relation  to  one  another.  The  relation  may  be  that 
of  chronology ;  that  of  general  statement  followed  by  details ; 
that  of  cause  and  effect;  or  any  other  relation,  so  long  as  it  is 
a  logical  and  natural  one. 

The  outline  should  not  be  too  minute  and  detailed.  It 
should  be  sufficient  only  to  cover  the  various  divisions  of  the 
subject-matter,  and  to  prevent  the  confusion  of  subtopics. 


THE  WHOLE  COMPOSITION  177 

A  too  detailed  outline  tends  to  make  the  composition  stiff  and 
formal. 

The  outline  should  have  proportion.  The  essential 
features  of  the  subject  should  be  the  main  topics.  Minor 
subjects  should  not  be  given  too  great  prominence,  but  should 
be  subordinated  to  the  main  topics. 

181.  The  Beginning  of  the  Composition.  To  choose  a 
method  of  beginning  a  composition  often  causes  trouble.  Usu- 
ally a  simple,  direct  beginning  is  the  best.  But  sometimes  an 
introductory  paragraph  is  necessary  in  order  to  explain  the 
writer's  point  of  view,  or  to  indicate  to  what  phases  of  the 
subject  attention  is  to  be  given.  Examine  the  following 
methods  of  beginning. 

THE  INDUSTRY  OF  LAWYER 

Oddly  enough,  hardly  any  notice  is  taken  of  an  industry  in  which 
the  United  States  towers  in  unapproachable  supremacy  above  all  other 
nations  of  the  earth.  The  census  does  not  say  a  word  about  it,  nor 
does  there  exist  more  than  the  merest  word  about  it  in  all  the  literature 
of  American  self-praise. 

MY  CHILDHOOD   FEAR  OF   GHOSTS 

Nothing  stands  out  more  keenly  in  the  recollection  of  my  childhood, 
than  the  feelings  of  terror  which  I  experienced  when  forced  to  go  to 
bed  without  the  protecting  light  of  a  lamp.  Then  it  was  that  dread, 
indefinite  ghosts  lurked  behind  every  door,  hid  in  every  clothes-press, 
or  lay  in  wait  beneath  every  bed. 

THE  USES  OF  IRON 

No  other  metal  is  put  to  so  many  uses  and  is  so  indispensable  as 
iron. 

The  opening  sentences  of  a  composition  should  be  able  to 
stand  alone;  their  meaning  or  clearness  should  not  depend 
upon  reference  to  the  title. 


178         PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

Bad: 

THE  VALUE  OF  LATIN  IN  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

There  is  a  rapidly  growing  belief  that  this  study  has  too  large  a  place 
in  our  high-school  courses  of  study. 

Good: 

THE  VALUE   OF  LATIN  IN  THE  HIGH  SCHOOL 

There  is  a  rapidly  growing  belief  that  Latin  has  too  large  a  place 
in  our  high  school  courses  of  study. 

182.  Unity  in  the  Composition.     Unity  is  an  essential  ele- 
ment of  the  whole  composition  as  well  as  of  the  paragraph,  and 
its  demands  here  are  in  general  the  same.     Nothing  must  be 
brought  into  the  composition  which  does  not  fall  well  within 
the  limits  of  the  subject.     In  the  different  subdivisions,  also, 
nothing  must  be  discussed  which  properly  belongs  to  some 
other  division  of  the  topic. 

As  in  the  paragraph,  a  definite  point  of  view  should  be 
adopted  and  adhered  to.  There  must  not  be  a  continual 
changing  of  relation  of  parts  of  the  composition  to  the  sub- 
ject, nor  of  the  writer's  relation  to  the  subject. 

A  consistent  point  of  view  is  especially  necessary  in  a 
narrative.  If  the  writer  is  telling  of  events  within  his  own 
experience,  care  must  be  taken  not  to  bring  in  any  conversa- 
tion or  occurrence,  at  which,  by  his  own  story,  he  could  not 
have  been  present.  A  continual  changing  back  and  forth 
between  present  and  past  tenses  must  also  be  avoided.  One 
or  the  other  should  be  adopted  consistently. 

183.  Coherence  in  the  Composition.     A  composition  must 
also  be  coherent.     Its  different  parts  must  be  closely  knit 
together  and  the  whole  closely  knit  to  the  subject.     Just  as 
in  the  paragraph,  words  of  reference  and  transition  are  needed, 
so  in  the  composition,  words,  or  sentences  of  reference  and 
transition  are  needed,  in  order  to  bind  the  whole  together 
and  show  the  relation  of  its  parts. 


THE  WHOLE  COMPOSITION  179 

For  this  purpose,  the  beginning  of  a  new  division  or  any 
definite  change  of  topic  should  be  closely  marked,  so  as  to 
prevent  confusion.  There  should  be  transition  sentences,  or 
sentences  which  show  the  change  of  topic  from  paragraph  to 
paragraph,  and  yet  at  the  same  time  bridge  the  thought 
from  paragraph  to  paragraph.  These  transition  sentences  may 
come  at  the  end  of  a  preceding  paragraph,  or  at  the  begin- 
ning of  a  following  one,  or  at  both  of  these  places. 

Examine  the  following  parts  of  paragraphs  in  which  the 
words  or  phrases  showing  transition  from  part  to  part  are 
italicized: 

(Last  sentence  of  first  paragraph) 

.     .     .    The  American  War  was  pregnant  with  misery  of  every  kind. 

(Second  paragraph) 

The  mischief,  however,  recoiled  on  the  unhappy  people  of  this  coun- 
try, who  were  made  the  instruments  by  which  the  wicked  purposes  of 
the  authors  were  effected.  The  nation  was  drained  of  its  best  blood, 
and  of  its  vital  resources  of  men  and  money.  The  expense  of  the 
war  was  enormous — much  beyond  any  former  experience. 

(Third  paragraph) 

And  yet,  what  has  the  British  nation  received  in  return  for  this  ex- 
pense. .  .  . 

.     .     .    I  was  now  enabled  to  see  the  extent  and  aspect  of  my  prison. 
In  its  size  I  had  been  greatly  mistaken.     .     .     . 

(Beginning  of  paragraph  following  one  on  Unity  in  the  paragraph) 
The  second  of  the  essentials  of  the  paragraph,  coherence,  demands 
that  .     .    . 

Frequently,  in  the  longer  compositions,  a  separate  para- 
graph is  devoted  to  accomplishing  the  transition  from  part 
to  part.  Observe  the  following: 

(Paragraph  7) 

.  .  .  The  only  other  law  bearing  on  this  matter  is  the  Act  of 
Assembly  of  last  year  authorizing  the  receipts  from  the  automobile 


180         PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

taxes  to  be  used  in  the  construction  of  roads.  This  then  completes 
the  enumeration  of  what  has  already  been  done  toward  building 
good  roads. 

(Paragraph  8.   Transitional  paragraph) 

There  are,  however,  several  promising  plans  for  the  securing  of  this 
important  result,  which  are  now  being  seriously  discussed. 

(Paragraph  9) 

The  first  of  these  plans  is  .     .     . 

The  following  are  a  few  of  the  words  and  phrases  often 
used  to  indicate  transition  and  to  show  relation  between  the 
paragraphs:  So  much  for,  It  remains  to  mention,  In  the  next 
place,  Again,  An  additional  reason,  Therefore,  Hence,  Moreover, 
As  a  result  of  this,  By  way  of  exception. 

Examine  the  selection  under  §  187. 

184.  The  Ending  of  the  Composition.  In  a  longer  com- 
position, the  ending  should  neither  be  too  abrupt,  nor,  on 
the  other  hand,  should  it  be  too  long  drawn  out.  It  should 
be  in  proportion  to  the  length  of  the  composition.  Usually, 
except  in  the  case  of  a  story,  it  should  consist  of  a  paragraph 
or  two  by  way  of  summary  or  inference.  In  a  story,  however, 
the  ending  may  be  abrupt  or  not.  The  kind  of  ending  de- 
pends entirely  upon  the  nature  and  the  scheme  of  develop- 
ment of  the  story.  Examine  the  following  endings: 

Ending  of  a  theme  on  The  Uses  of  Iron: 

Only  some  of  the  more  important  uses  of  this  wonderful  metal, 
iron,  have  been  mentioned.  There  are  hundreds  of  other  uses  to  which 
it  is  constantly  put — uses  which  no  other  metal  could  fill.  Gold  may 
once  have  been  called  the  king  of  metals,  but  it  has  long  since  lost  its 
claim  to  that  title. 

Ending  of  a  story: 

John  heard  her  answer,  and  began  to  move  slowly  away  from  the 
gate. 

"Good-bye,"  he  said. 

And  then  he  was  gone,  forever. 


THE  WHOLE  COMPOSITION  181 

Suggested  subjects  for  the  making  of  outlines  and  com- 
positions. 

1.  How  I  Spent  my  Vacation. 

2.  Shall  Final  Examinations  be  Abolished? 

3.  The  Subjects  which  Should  be  Taught  in  High  Schools. 

4.  My  Qualifications  for  a  Position. 

5.  The  Uses  of  Iron. 

6.  Paul  Revere's  Ride. 

7.  The  City  Park. 

8.  My  Town  as  a  Place  of  Residence. 

9.  The  Value  of  Railroads. 

10.  Why  I  Believe  in  Local  Option. 

11.  A  Winter's  Sleigh  Ride. 

12.  Shall  Foreign  Immigration  be  Restricted? 

13.  My  Youthful  Business  Ventures. 

14.  Why  I  Belong  to  the  X  Political  Party. 

15.  Various  Methods  of  Heating  a  House. 

185.  Below  is  given  in  full  Lincoln's  Gettysburg  Speech. 
It  is  perfect  in  its  English  and  its  construction.  Study  it 
with  especial  reference  to  its  coherence,  unity,  and  emphasis. 
Some  of  the  words  of  coherence  have  been  italicized. 

Fourscore  and  seven  years  ago  our  fathers  brought  forth  upon  this 
continent  a  new  nation,  conceived  in  liberty,  and  dedicated  to  the 
proposition  that  all  men  are  created  equal.  Now  we  are  engaged  in  a 
great  civil  war,  testing  whether  that  nation,  or  any  nation  so  conceived 
and  so  dedicated,  can  long  endure. 

We  are  met  on  a  great  battle-field  of  that  war.  We  have  come 
to  dedicate  a  portion  of  that  field  as  the  final  resting-place  for  those 
who  here  gave  their  lives  that  that  nation  might  live.  It  is  altogether 
fitting  and  proper  that  we  should  do  this.  But  in  a  larger  sense  we 
cannot  dedicate,  we  cannot  consecrate,  we  cannot  hallow  this  ground. 
The  brave  men,  living  and  dead,  who  struggled  here  have  consecrated 
it  far  above  our  power  to  add  or  detract.  The  world  will  little  note, 
nor  long  remember,  what  we  say  here;  but  it  can  never  forget  what 
they  did  here. 

It  is  for  us,  the  living,  rather,  to  be  dedicated  here  to  the  unfinished 
13 


182         PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION 

work  which  they  who  fought  here  have  thus  far  so  nobly  advanced. 
It  is  rather  for  us  to  be  here  dedicated  to  the  great  task  remaining 
before  us,  that  from  these  honored  dead  we  take  increased  devotion 
to  that  cause  for  which  they  here  gave  the  last  full  measure  of  devotion; 
that  we  here  highly  resolve  that  these  dead  shall  not  have  died  in  vain; 
that  this  nation,  under  God,  shall  have  a  new  birth  of  freedom,  and  that 
government  of  the  people,  by  the  people,  and  for  the  people,  shall 
not  perish  from  the  earth. 

186.     Small  Economies,  from  Mrs.  GaskelFs  Cranford. 

I  have  often  noticed  that  everyone  has  his  own  individual  small 
economies — careful  habits  of  saving  fractions  of  pennies  in  some  one 
peculiar  direction — any  disturbance  of  which  annoys  him  more  than 
spending  shillings  or  pounds  on  some  real  extravagance. 

An  old  gentleman  of  my  acquaintance,  who  took  the  intelligence 
of  the  failure  of  a  Joint-Stock  Bank,  in  which  some  of  his  money  was 
invested,  with  a  stoical  mildness,  worried  his  family  all  through  a  long 
summer's  day  because  one  of  them  had  torn  (instead  of  cutting)  out 
the  written  leaves  of  his  now  useless  bank-book.  Of  course,  the 
corresponding  pages  at  the  other  end  came  out  as  well,  and  this  little 
unnecessary  waste  of  paper  (his  private  economy)  chafed  him  more 
than  all  the  loss  of  his  money.  Envelopes  fretted  his  soul  terribly 
when  they  first  came  in.  The  only  way  in  which  he  could  reconcile 
himself  to  such  waste  of  his  cherished  article  was  by  patiently  turning 
inside  out  all  that  were  sent  to  him,  and  so  making  them  serve  again. 
Even  now,  though  tamed  by  age,  I  see  him  casting  wistful  glances  at  his 
'.Daughters  when  they  send  a  whole  inside  of  a  half-sheet  of  note  paper, 
with  the  three  lines  of  acceptance  to  an  invitation,  written  on  only 
one  of  the  sides. 

I  am  not  above  owning  that  I  have  this  human  weakness  myself. 
String  is  my  foible.  My  pockets  get  full  of  little  hanks  of  it,  picked 
up  and  twisted  together,  ready  for  uses  that  never  come.  I  am 
seriously  annoyed  if  any  one  cuts  the  string  of  a  parcel  instead  of  pa- 
tiently and  faithfully  undoing  it  fold  by  fold.  How  people  can  bring 
themselves  to  use  india-rubber  bands,  which  are  a  sort  of  deification, 
•f  string,  as  lightly  as  they  do,  I  cannot  imagine.  To  me  an  india- 
rubber  band  is  a  precious  treasure.  I  have  one  which  is  not  new — 


THE  WHOLE  COMPOSITION  183 

one  that  I  picked  up  off  the  floor  nearly  six  years  ago.  I  have  really 
tried  to  use  it,  but  my  heart  failed  me,  and  I  could  not  commit  the 
extravagance. 

Small  pieces  of  butter  grieve  others.  They  cannot  attend  to  con- 
versation because  of  the  annoyance  occasioned  by  the  habit  which 
some  people  have  of  invariably  taking  more  butter  than  they  want. 
Have  you  not  seen  the  anxious  look  (almost  mesmeric)  which  such 
persons  fix  on  the  article?  They  would  feel  it  a  relief  if  they  might 
bury  it  out  of  their  sight  by  popping  it  into  their  own  mouths  and 
swallowing  it  down;  and  they  are  really  made  happy  if  the  person 
on  whose  plate  it  lies  unused  suddenly  breaks  off  a  piece  of  toast 
(which  he  does  not  want  at  all)  and  eats  up  his  butter.  They  think 
that  this  is  not  waste. 

Now  Miss  Matty  Jenkins  was  chary  of  candles.  We  had  many 
devices  to  use  as  few  as  possible.  In  the  winter  afternoons  she  would 
sit  knitting  for  two  or  three  hours — she  could  do  this  in  the  dark, 
or  by  firelight — and  when  I  asked  if  I  might  not  ring  for  candles  to 
finish  stitching  my  wristbands,  she  told  me  to  "keep  blind  man's 
holiday."  They  were  usually  brought  in  with  tea;  but  we  only  burnt 
one  at  a  time.  As  we  lived  in  constant  preparation  for  a  friend  who 
might  come  in  any  evening  (but  who  never  did),  it  required  some  con- 
trivance to  keep  our  two  candles  of  the  same  length,  ready  to  be 
lighted,  and  to  look  as  if  we  burnt  two  always.  The  candles  took  it 
in  turns;  and,  whatever  we  might  be  talking  or  doing,  Miss  Matty's 
eyes  were  habitually  fixed  upon  the  candle,  ready  to  jump  up  and 
extinguish  it  and  to  light  the  other  before  they  had  become  too  uneven 
in  length  to  be  restored  to  equality  in  the  course  of  the  evening. 

One  night,  I  remember  this  candle  economy  particularly  annoyed 
me.  I  had  been  very  much  tired  of  my  compulsory  "blind  man's 
holiday,"  especially  as  Miss  Matty  had  fallen  asleep,  and  I  did  not  like 
to  stir  the  fire  and  run  the  risk  of  awakening  her;  and  so  I  could  not 
even  sit  on  the  rug,  and  scorch  myself  with  sewing  by  firelight,  accord- 
ing to  my  usual  custom.  .  .  . 

187.  A  List  of  Books  for  Reading.  These  books  are 
of  a  varied  character  and  are  all  interesting  and  of  .recognized 
excellence  in  their  English.  Most  of  them  are  books  that, 
as  a  matter  of  general  education,  should  be  read  by  everyone. 


184          PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

Fiction: 

Treasure  Island — Stevenson. 
Kidnapped — Stevenson. 
Dr.  Jekyll  and  Mr.  Hyde — Stevenson. 
The  Scarlet  Letter— Hawthorne. 
Twice  Told  Tales— Hawthorne. 
The  Luck  of  Roaring  Camp — Bret  Harte. 
Tales  of  Mystery  and  Imagination — Poe. 
Silas  Marner — Eliot. 
-  Robinson  Crusoe — Defoe. 
Ivanhoe — Scott. 
Henry  Esmond — Thackeray. 
Pilgrim's  Progress — Bunyan. 
The  Spy — Cooper. 
The  Man  without  a  Country — Hale. 
Tales  of  a  Traveller — Irving. 
The  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow — Irving. 
Rip  Van  Winkle — Irving. 
Lorna  Doone — Blackmore. 
Uncle  William — Lee. 
The  Blue  Flower— Van  Dyke. 

Non-fiction: 

Sesame  and  Lilies — Ruskin. 

Stones  of  Venice — Ruskin. 

The  American  Commonwealth — Bryce. 

A  History  of  the  English  People — Green. 

Views  Afoot — Taylor. 

The  Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast  Table — Holmes. 

Conspiracy  of  Pontiac — Parkman. 

Autobiography — Franklin. 

Lincoln-Douglas  Debates. 

Critical  Periods  of  American  History — Fiske. 

Certain  Delightful  English  Towns — Howells. 

The  Declaration  of  Independence. 

Bunker  Hill  Oration — Webster. 

On  Conciliation  with  America — Burke. 

The  Sketch  Book— Irving. 


CHAPTER  XII 
WORDS.— SPELLING— PRONUNCIATION 

188.  To  write  and  to  speak  good  English,  one  must  have  a 
good  working  vocabulary.     He  must  know  words  and  be  able 
to  use  them  correctly;  he  must  employ  only  words  that  are  in 
good  use;  he  must  be  able  to  choose  words  and  phrases  that 
accurately  express  his  meaning;  and  he  must  be  able  to  spell 
and  pronounce  correctly  the  words  that  he  uses. 

WORDS 

189.  Good  Use.     The  first  essential  that  a  word  should 
have,  is  that  it  be  in  good  use.     A  word  is  in  good  use  when 
it  is  used  grammatically  and  in  its  true  sense,  and  is  also : 

(1)  Reputable;    in  use    by  good  authors  and  writers  in 
general.     The  use  of  a  word  by  one  or  two  good  writers  is 
not  sufficient  to  make  a  word  reputable;  the  use  must  be 
general. 

(2)  National;  not  foreign  or  local  in  its  use.. 

(3)  Present;  used  by  the  writers  of  one's  own  time. 

190.  Offenses  against  Good  Use.     The  offenses   against 
good  use  are  usually  said  to  be  of  three  classes:  Solecisms, 
Barbarisms,  and  Improprieties. 

191.  Solecisms  are  the  violations  of  the  principles  of 
grammar.     Solecisms  have  been  treated  under  the  earlier  chap- 
ters on  grammar. 

192.  Barbarisms.     The  second  offense  against  good  use, 
a  barbarism,  is  a  word  not  in  reputable,  present  or  national 
use.     The  following  rules  may  be  given  on  this  subject: 

1.  Avoid    obsolete    words.     Obsolete    words    are    words 
that,  once  in  good  use,  have  since  passed  out  of  general  use. 

185 


186         PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

This  rule  might  also  be  made  to  include  obsolescent  words: 
words  that  are  at  present  time  passing  out  of  use.  Examples 
of  obsolete  words: 

methinks  yesterwhiles  twixt 

yclept  afeard  shoon 

2.  Avoid   newly   coined   expressions   or  new  uses  of   old 
expressions.      There  are  a  great  many  words  current  in  the 
newspapers  and  in  other  hasty  writing  that  have  not  the 
sanction  of  general  good  use  at  the  present  time,  though 
many  of  these  words  may  in  time  come  into  use.     A  safe  rule 
is  to  avoid  all  words  that  are  at  all  doubtful.     Examples: 

an  invite  an  expose"  a  try 

enthuse  a  combine  fake 

A  common  newspaper   fault  is  the   coining  of  a  verb  or 
adjective  from  a  noun,  or  a  noun  from  a  verb.     Examples: 

locomote  suicided  derailment 

pluralized  burglarized  refereed 

3.  Avoid  foreign  words.     A   foreign  word  should  not  be 
used  until  it  has  become  naturalized  by  being  in  general, 
reputable  use.     Since  there  are  almost  always  English  words 
just  as  expressive  as  the  foreign  words,  the  use  of  the  foreign 
words  usually  indicates  affectation  on  the  part  of  the  one 
using  them.     Examples: 

billet-doux  (love  letter)  conversazione  (conversation) 

ad  nauseam  (to  disgust)  distingue  (distinguished) 

ad  infinitum  (infinitely)  entre  nous  (between  us) 

4.  Avoid  provincialisms.      Provincialisms   are  expressions 
current  and  well  understood  in  one  locality,  but  not  current 
or  differently  understood  in  another  locality.     Examples: 

guess  (think)  reckon  (suppose) 

near  (stingy)  smart  (clever) 

tuckered  (tired  out)  lift  (elevator) 

tote  (carry)  ruination  (ruin) 


WORDS.— SPELLING.— PRONUNCIATION  187 

5.  Avoid  vulgarisms.     Vulgarisms    are    words    whose  use 
shows  vulgarity  or  ignorance.     Such  words  as  the  following 
are  always  in  bad  taste: 

chaw  nigger  your'n 

gal  flustrated  hadn't  oughter 

haint  dern  his'n 

6.  Avoid  slang.     Slang    is    a   form  of  vulgarism  that  is 
very  prevalent  in  its  use  even  by  educated  people.     Slang 
words,  it  is  true,  sometimes  come  into  good  repute  and  usage, 
but  the  process  is  slow.     The  safest  rule  is  to  avoid  slang 
expressions  because  of  their  general  bad  taste  and  because  of 
their  weakening  effect  on  one's  vocabulary  of  good  words. 
Examples  of  slang: 

grind  swipe  booze 

long  green  on  a  toot  dough 

pinch  peach  dukes 

7.  Avoid  clipped  or  abbreviated  words.     The  use  of  such 
words  is  another  form  of  vulgarism.     Examples: 

pard  (partner)  rep  (reputation). 

doc  (doctor)  caPlate  (calculate) 

musee  (museum)  a  comp  (complimentary  ticket) 

8.  Avoid   technical   or   professional   words.     Such  words 
are  usually  clearly  understood  only  by  persons  of  one  class  or 
profession.     Examples: 

valence  hagiology  allonge 

kilowatt  sclerosis  estoppel 

193.  When  Barbarisms  May  be  Used.  In  the  foregoing 
rules  barbarisms  have  been  treated  as  at  all  times  to  be 
avoided.  This  is  true  of  their  use  in  general  composition, 
and  in  a  measure  true  of  their  use  in  composition  of  a  special 
nature.  But  barbarisms  may  sometimes  be  used  properly. 
Obsolete  words  would  be  permissible  in  poetry  or  in  historical 


188         PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION 

novels,  technical  words  permissible  in  technical  writing,  and 
even  vulgarisms  and  provincialisms  permissible  in  dialect 
stories. 

Exercise  76 

Substitute  for  each  of  the  barbarisms  in  the  following  list 
an  expression  that  is  in  good  use.  When  in  doubt  consult  a  good 
dictionary: 

Chaw,  quoth,  fake,  reckon,  dern,  forsooth,  his'n,  an  invite,  entre 
nous,  tote,  hadn't  oughter,  yclept,  a  combine,  ain't,  dole,  a  try,  nouveau 
riche,  puny,  grub,  twain,  a  boom,  alter  ego,  a  poke,  cuss,  eld,  enthused, 
mesalliance,  tollable,  disremember,  locomote,  a  right  smart  ways, 
chink,  afeard,  orate,  nary  a  one,  yore,  pluralized,  distingue,  ruination, 
complected,  mayhap,  burglarized,  mal  de  mer,  tuckered,  grind,  near, 
suicided,  callate,  cracker-jack,  erst,  railroaded,  chic,  down  town, 
deceased  (verb),  a  rig,  swipe,  spake,  on  a  toot,  knocker,  peradventure, 
guess,  prof,  classy,  booze,  per  se,  cute,  biz,  bug-house,  swell,  opry, 
rep,  photo,  cinch,  corker,  in  cahoot,  pants,  fess  up,  exam,  bike,  incog, 
zoo,  secondhanded,  getable,  outclassed,  gents,  mucker,  galoot,  dub, 
up  against  it,  on  tick,  to  rattle,  in  hock,  busted  on  the  bum,  to  watch 
out,  get  left. 

Exercise  77 

Make  a  list  of  such  barbarisms  as  you  yourself  use,  and 
devise  for  them  as  many  good  substitute  expressions  as  you  can. 
Practice  using  the  good  expressions  that  you  have  made. 

Exercise  78 

Correct  the  italicized  barbarisms  in  the  following  sentences; 

1.  They  can  go  every wheres. 

2.  He  spends  all  his  time  grinding. 

3.  There  ain't  a  sightlier  town  in  the  state. 

4.  He  ate  the  whole  hunk  of  cake. 


WORDS.— SPELLING.— PRONUNCIATION  189 

5.  He  was  treated  very  illy. 

6.  Smith's  new  house  is  very  showy. 

7.  Not  muchly  will  I  go. 

8.  All  were  ready  for  breakfast  before  sun-up. 

9.  Do  you  like  light-complected  people? 

10.  I  had  never  orated  before. 

11.  Their  clothes  are  always  tasty  in  appearance. 

12.  He  has  money,  but  he  is  very  near. 

13.  He  left  the  room  unbeknown  to  his  mother. 

14.  If  manners  are  any  indication,  she  belongs  to  the  nouveau 
riche. 

15.  I  feel  pretty  tollable  today. 

16.  I  reckon  all  will  be  able  to  get  seats. 

17.  Do  you  collate  to  get  there  before  noon? 

18.  If  I  had  as  much  long  green  as  he  has,  I  wouldn't  be  such  a 
tight-wad.  •. 

19.  He  was  the  beau  ideal  of  soldier. 

20.  John  is  a  crazy  cuss. 

21.  Let  me  say  en  passant  we  did  not  ask  for  the  tickets. 

22.  Even  at  that  time  John  had  a  bad  rep. 

23.  That  woman  is  the  Countess  of  Verdun,  nee  Smith. 

24.  Methinks  you  are  wrong. 

25.  The  teacher  spake  sharply  to  her. 

26.  I  didn't  go  for  to  do  it. 

27.  It  will  be  published  inside  of  two  months. 

28.  The  duke  and  his  wife  were  travelling  incog. 

29.  I  hadn't  thought  on  that. 

30.  There  is  little  difference  twixt  the  two. 

31.  Come  now,  fess  up. 

32.  It's  a  right  smart  ways  to  Williamsport. 

33.  You  wot  not  what  you  say. 

34.  He  bought  a  poke  of  apples  for  his  lunch. 

35.  Brown  runs  a  pretty  classy  store. 

36.  I  finally  got  shut  of  him. 

37.  I  could  of  jumped  across. 

38.  That  can't  be  done  nohow. 

39.  You  make  such  dumb  mistakes. 

40.  I  never  saw  such  a  bum  show. 


190         PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION 

194.  Improprieties.  The  third  offense  against  good  use, 
an  impropriety,  is  the  use  of  a  proper  word  in  an  improper 
sense.  In  many  cases  an  offense  against  good  use  may  be 
called  a  barbarism,  an  impropriety,  or  a  solecism,  since  the 
fields  covered  by  the  three  terms  somewhat  overlap  one 
another.  Many  improprieties  have  their  origin  in  the  similari- 
ties in  sound,  spelling  or  meaning  of  words.  The  following 
exercises  deal  with  a  number  of  common  improprieties  result- 
ing from  the  confusion  of  two  similar  words. 


Exercise  79 

Study  the  proper  use  of  the  words  given  under  each  of  the 
following  divisions.  In  each  group  of  sentences  fill  the  blanks 
with  the  proper  words: 

Accept,  except.  See  Glossary  at  end  of  book,  under 
except. 

1.  I  cannot your  gift. 

2.  Have  you  no  books these? 

3.  Cicero  was  not from  the  list  of  those  condemned. 

4.  He the  invitation. 

Affect,  effect.     See  Glossary  under  effect. 

1.  Will  your  plan  a  reform  from  the  present  condition  ? 

2.  The  sad  news  will  seriously his  mother. 

3.  How   was   the   bank  by  the   indictment   of  its  presi- 
dent? 

4.  The  change  of  schedule  was without  a  hitch. 

Aggravate,  irritate.     See  Glossary. 

1.  Her  manner me. 

2.  The  crime  was by  being  committed  in  cold  blood.  > 

3.  The  children  do  everything  they  can  to her. 

4.  His  illness  was  by  lack  of  proper  food. 


WORDS.— SPELLING.— PRONUNCIATION  191 

Allude,  mention.     See  Glossary. 

1.  He (to)  certain  events  which  he  dared  not  name  directly. 

2.  The  attorney (to)  no  names. 

3.  That  passage  in  his  book  delicately (to)  his  mother. 

4.  In  his  speech  the  labor  leader  boldly  (to)  his  recent 

arrest. 

Argue,  augur.  To  argue  is  to  state  reasons  for  one's  belief. 
To  augur  means  to  foretell,  to  presage. 

1.  The  reported  quarrel ill  for  the  army. 

2.  He  will at  length  on  any  subject. 

3.  Her  darkening  looks a  quarrel. 

Avocation,  vocation.  A  vocation  is  one's  principal  work 
or  calling.  An  avocation  is  something  aside  from  or  sub- 
ordinate to  that  principal  calling. 

1.  The  young  physician  enthusiastically  pursues  his . 

2.  Law  is  his  • .  but  politics  is  his . 


3.     The  ministry  should  be  one's ,  never  his 


4.  While  preparing  for  his  life  work,  school  teaching  was  for  a 
tune  his . 

Besides,  beside.  Besides  means  in  addition  to.  Beside 
refers  to  place;  as,  He  sits  beside  you. 

1.    you,  who  else  was  there? 

2.  Is  there  nothing this  to  do? 

3.  John  walked me. 

4.    me  was  a  tree. 

Calculate,  intend.  To  calculate  means  to  compute,  to  ad- 
just or  to  adapt.  Intend  means  to  have  formed  the  plan  to  do 
something. 

1.  He to  sell  books  this  summer. 

2.  He that  the  work  will  take  ten  years. 

3.  He to  finish  it  as  soon  as  he  can. 

4.  The  oil  is to  flow  at  the  rate  of  a  gallon  a  minute. 


192         PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

Character,  reputation.     See  Glossary. 

1.  In  this  community  his  is  excellent. 

2.  One's  friends  may  endow  him  with  a  good ,  but  not  with 

a  good . 


3.     Slander  may  ruin  one's ,  but  it  will  not  destroy  his 


4.     See  that  your  is  right,  and  your  will  establish 

itself. 

Claim,  assert.  To  claim  means  to  make  a  demand  for 
what  is  one's  own.  It  should  not  be  confused  with  assert. 

1.  I that  I  am  innocent. 

2.  John the  property  as  his. 

3.  They their  right  to  the  land. 

4.  The  cashier the  money  in  payment  of  a  note. 

5.  Do  you  still that  you  were  born  in  America? 

Council,  counsel,  consul.  A  council  is  a  group  of  persons 
called  in  to  hold  consultation.  Counsel  means  an  adviser, 
as  a  lawyer;  or  advice  that  is  given.  Consul  is  an  officer  of 
the  government. 

1.  In  the  colonies  each  governor  had  his . 

2.  The  advisers  gave  him when  he  desired  it. 

3.  The  United  States  has  a  in   every  important  foreign 

port. 

4.  In  criminal  cases  the  accused  must  be  provided  with . 

5.  The  president's  cabinet  constitutes  for  him  a  sort  of . 

6.  In  Rome  two were  elected  to  manage  the  affairs  of  the 

state. 

Emigration,  immigration.     See  Glossary. 

1.  Foreign into  the  United  States  is  greatly  restricted. 

2.  The of  the  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  Canada  is  be- 
coming a  matter  of  concern. 

3.  Our Bureau  enforces  the  Chinese  Exclusion  Act. 

4.  The  treatment  of  the  royalists   caused   a   great  from 

France. 


WORDS.— SPELLING.— PRONUNCIATION  193 

Good,  well.  Good  is  an  adjective.  Well  is  usually  an 
adverb,  though  sometimes  an  adjective;  as,  Are  you  well 
to-day  ? 

1.     She  talks  very . 


2.  She  prepares  a paper,  even  if  she  does  not  write . 

3.  Do what  you  are  doing. 

4.  Did  you  have  a time? 

5.  Recite  it  as as  you  can. 

House,    home.     House    means    only    a    'building.     Home 
means  a  place  that  is  one's  habitual  place  of  residence. 

1.  He  thought   often  of    the  flowers    about    the  door    of    his 
old . 

2.  They  have  recently  bought  a which  they  intend  to  make 

their . 

3.  Mr.  Heim  lives  here  now,  but  his is  in  Lewisburg. 

4.  He  has  several  miserable  that  he  rents. 

5.  Such  a  place  is  not  fit  to  be  called  a . 

Most,    almost.     Almost    is    an    adverb    meaning    nearly^ 
Most  never  has  this  meaning. 

1.  I  was injured  when  the  machine  broke. 

2.  It  is time  for  him  to  come. 

3.  The  discouraging  thing  was  his  indifference. 

4.  I missed  the  car. 

5.     of  the  books  are  torn. 


Let,  leave.     See  Glossary,  under  leave. 

1.  Will  his  employer him  go  so  early. 

2.  I  shall at  noon. 

3.  me  help  you  with  your  coat. 

4.  me  here  for  a  while. 

5.  This  book  I with  you. 

6.  Do  not that  danger  disturb  you. 


194         PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

Like,  as.  Like  should  not  be  used  as  a  conjunction  in 
the  sense  of  as.  As  a  preposition  it  is  correct.  It  is  wrong 
to  say,  Do  like  I  do;  but  right  to  say,  Do  as  I  do. 

1.  He  looks  -  James. 

2.  Read  -  James  does. 

3.  Does  she  look  -  me? 

4.  She  thinks  of  it  -  I  thought. 

5.  Lincoln  could  do  a  thing  -  that. 

6.  Other  men  could  not  do  -  Lincoln  did. 

Likely,  liable,  probably.  It  is  better  to  avoid  using  likely 
as  an  adverb;  but  it  may  be  used  as  an  adjective;  as,  He  is 
likely  to  come.  Probably  refers  to  any  sort  of  possibility. 
Liable  refers  to  an  unpleasant  or  unfavorable  possibility;  it 
should  not  be  used  as  equivalent  to  likely. 

1.  He  is  -  to  arrest  for  doing  that. 

2.  The  president's  car  will  -  arrive  at  noon. 

3.  It  is  -  to  rain  to-day. 

4.  Is  he  -  to  write  to  us? 

5.  Continued  exposure  makes  one  more  -  to  serious  ilJness. 

6.  What  will  -  come  of  it? 

Loan,  lend.  Loan  should  be  used  only  as  a  noun,  and 
lend  only  as  a  verb. 

1.  I  wish  to  obtain  a  -  of  fifty  dollars. 

2.  Will  you  -  me  your  knife? 

3.  A  -  of  money  loses  both  itself  and  friend. 

4.  A  -  -  is  something  that  one  -  to  another. 

Mad,  angry.  Mad  means  insane,  uncontrollably  excited 
through  fear,  etc.  It  should  not  be  used  for  angry  or  vexed. 

1.     His  manner  of  speaking  makes  me  -  . 


2.  It  makes  one  -  to  see  such  behavior. 

3.  The  noise  almost  drove  me  -  . 


WORDS.— SPELLING.— PRONUNCIATION  195 

Much,  many.     Much  refers  to  quantity;  many  to  num- 
ber. 

1.  Sometimes  they  have  as as  fifty  in  a  class. 

2.    of  the  trouble  comes  from  his  weak  eyes. 

3.  Do  you  use horses  on  the  farm? 

4.  How marbles  did  the  boy  have? 


Near,  nearly.     Near  is  an  adjective;  nearly  an  adverb. 

1.  Is  the  work finished? 

2.  The  man  was the  end  of  the  porch. 

3.  It  was noon  when  Blucher  came. 

4.  They  are insane  with  worry. 

5.  Mary  is  not so  old  as  John. 


Observation,  observance.  Observation  means  to  watch,  to 
look  at.  Observance  means  to  celebrate,  to  keep.  Observation 
applies  to  a  fact  or  an  object;  observance  to  a  festival,  a  holiday, 
or  a  rule. 

1.  The of  the  astronomer  proved  the  theory. 

2.  Sunday is  of  value  to  one's  bodily  as  well  as  to  one's 

spiritual  health. 

3.  The of  the  sanitary  regulations  was  insisted  upon. 

4.  The  scientist  needs  highly  developed  powers  of . 


Respectively,  respectfully.  Respectively  means  particu- 
larly, relating  to  each.  Respectfully  means  characterized  by 
high  regard. 

1.  These  three  kinds  of  architecture  were  characterized as 

" severe,"  "graceful,"  and  "ornate." 

2.  Sign  your  letter  "Yours . ,"  not  "yours ." 

3.  Their  shares  were two  hundred  dollars  and  five  hundred 

dollars, 

4.  The  class informed  the  faculty  of  their  desire. 


r 

196         PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

Suspect,  expect.  Suspect  means  to  mistrust.  Expect 
means  to  look  forward  to. 

1.  I that  he  will  come. 

2.  He his  brother  of  hiding  his  coat. 

3.  When  do  you to  finish  the  work? 

4.  The  man  was  never  before of  having  done  wrong. 

Teach,  learn.     See  Glossary  under  learn. 

1.  You  must him  to  be  careful. 

2.  He  must to  be  careful. 

3.  To a  class  to  study  is  a  difficult  task. 

4.  Who your  class  to-day. 

Transpire,  happen.  Transpire  does  not  mean  to  happen. 
It  means  to  become  gradually  known,  to  leak  out. 

1.  She  knows  everything  that  — —  in  the  village. 

2.  It that  he  had  secretly  sold  the  farm. 

3.  No  more  important  event  than  this  has in  the  last  ten  years. 

4.  It  has  now that  some  money  was  stolen. 

Quite,  very.  Quite  is  not  in  good  use  in  the  sense  of  very 
or  to  a  great  degree.  It  properly  means  entirely. 

1.  The  book  is easy  to  study. 

2.  Have  you finished  your  work. 

3.  The  train  ran slowly  for  most  of  the  distance. 

4.  That  is easy  to  do. 

5.  We  were unable  to  reach  the  city  any  sooner. 

Exercise  80 

The  following  list  includes  some  groups  of  words  that  are 
often  confused.  For  the  proper  meaning  of  the  words  refer  to 
a  good  dictionary.  Write  sentences  using  the  words  in  their 
proper  senses: 

practical,  skilled  sensible,  sensitive 

couple,  two  access,  accession 

future,  subsequent  allusion,  illusion,  delusion 


WORDS.— SPELLING.— PRONUNCIATION  197 

folk,  family  conscience,  consciousness 

evidence,  testimony  identity,  identification 

party,  person,  firm  limit,  limitation 

plenty,  many,  enough  of  majority,  plurality 

portion,  part  materialize,  appear 

solicitation,  solicitude  invent,  discover 

human,  humane  prescribe,  proscribe 

bound,  determined  some,  somewhat,  something 

fix,  mend  mutual,  common 

foot,  pay  noted,  notorious 

creditable,  credible  wait  for,  wait  on 

exceptionable,  exceptional  in,  into 

Exercise  81 

Show  how  the  use  of  each  of  the  two  italicized  words  in  the 
following  sentences  would  affect  the  meaning  of  the  sentence: 

1.  We  experienced  a  succession  series  of  hindrances. 

2.  That  statement  assertion  was  made  by  an  eye  witness. 

3.  The  student  has  remarkable  ability  capacity. 

4.  In  my  estimate  estimation  the  cost  will  be  higher  than  fifty 
dollars. 

5.  The  import  importance  of  his  words  is  not  fully  understood. 

6.  The  union  unity  of  the  clubs  is  remarkable. 

7.  The  acts  actions  of  the  president  were  closely  watched. 

8.  The  man  needed  a  new  stimulus  stimulant. 

9.  He  was  captivated  captured  by  her  unusual  charms. 

10.  We  are  quick  to  impute  impugn  motives  that  we  think  to  exist. 

11.  He  was  convinced  convicted  by  John's  argument. 

12.  The  dog's  suffering  was  alleviated  relieved  by  the  medicine. 

13.  He  persuaded  advised  me  to  consult  a  lawyer. 

14.  His  behavior  was  funny  odd. 

15.  The  plan  seems  practical  practicable. 

16.  That  is  the  latest  last  letter. 

17.  That  certainly  was  not  a  human  humane  action. 

18.  He  waited  on  waited  for  his  mother. 

19.  The  completeness  completion  of  the  work  brought  many  con- 
gratulations. 

14 


198         PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

Exercise  82 

Supply  a  word  which  will  remedy  the  italicized  impropriety 
in  each  of  the  following  sentences.  When  in  doubt  consult  a 
dictionary: 

1.  The  majority  of  the  illustrations  are  good. 

2.  No  one  can  accurately  predicate  what  the  weather  will  be. 

3.  Shall  you  except  the  invitation? 

4.  They  claim  that  the  assertion  cannot  be  proved. 

5.  They  finally  located  the  criminal  in  Dravosburg. 

6.  I  shall  leave  you  go  at  noon. 

7.  The  balance  of  the  essay  was  uninteresting. 

8.  By  questions  they  tried  to  eliminate  the  true  story. 

9.  They  impugn  false  motives  to  me. 

10.  He  was  greatly  effected  by  the  news. 

11.  Sabbath  observation  was  then  very  strict. 

12.  They  expect  that  she  wrote  the  letter. 

13.  The  invention  of  electricity  has  revolutionized  all  manufac- 
tures. 

14.  Who  learned  her  to  sing? 

15.  Edison  discovered  the  phonograph. 

16.  One  cannot  comprehend  the  enormity  of  a  billion  of  dollars. 

17.  Many  complements  were  paid  to  her  beauty. 

18.  His  consciousness  pricked  him. 

19.  How  could  any  one  be  guilty  of  such  a  cruel  action. 

20.  The  advancement  of  the  army  was  very  slow. 

195.  Idioms.  There  are  in  English,  as  in  other  languages, 
a  number  of  expressions  that  cannot  be  justified  by  the  rules 
of  grammar  or  rhetoric;  and  yet  these  expressions  are  among 
the  most  forcible  ones  in  the  language,  and  are  continually 
used  by  the  best  writers.  These  expressions  that  lie  outside 
all  rules  we  call  idioms.  Compare  the  following  idiomatic 
expressions  with  the  unidiomatic  expressions  that  succeed 
them.  The  second  expression  in  each  group  is  in  accord 
with  the  strict  rules  of  composition;  but  the  first,  the  idio- 
matic, is  far  more  forceful. 


WORDS.— SPELLING.— PRONUNCIATION  199 

Idiomatic :  The  book  which  I  read  about. 
Unidiomatic :  The  book  about  which  I  read. 

Idiomatic :  More  than  one  life  was  lost. 
Unidiomatic :  More  lives  than  one  life  were  lost. 

Idiomatic :.  Speak  loud.     Speak  louder. 
Unidiomatic :  Speak  loudly.     Speak  more  loudly. 

Idiomatic :  A  ten-foot  pole. 
Unidiomatic :  A  ten-feet  pole. 

Idiomatic :  He  strove  with  might  and  main. 

Unidiomatic:  He  strove  with  might.  (Might  and  main  are  two 
words  of  the  same  meaning.) 

Idiomatic :  He  lectured  on  every  other  day. 
Unidiomatic:  He  lectured  on  one  day  out  of  every  two. 

Idioms  are  not  to  be  avoided.  On  the  contrary,  because 
they  contribute  great  ease  and  force  to  composition,  their 
use  is  to  be  encouraged.  But  the  distinction  between  idio- 
matic and  Unidiomatic  expressions  is  a  fine  one,  and  rests  solely 
on  usage.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  go  beyond  the  idio- 
matic. There  is  probably  little  danger  that  the  ordinary  writer 
or  speaker  will  not  use  idioms  enough. 

The  following  expressions  are  examples  of  commonly  used 
idioms: 

He  was  standing  at  the  door  in  his  shirt  sleeves. 

I  don't  think  it  will  rain  (I  think  it  will  not  rain). 

She  walked  out  of  the  room  on  her  father's  arm. 

John  was  a  poor  shot. 

Do  you  feel  like  a  little  candy  1 

See  what  my  foolishness  has  brought  me  to. 

What  part  of  the  city  will  they  settle  in? 

What  was  the  house  built  /or? 

John  needs  a  match  to  light  his  pipe  with. 

That  is  all  I  ask  for. 

What  are  you  driving  att 

Hard  put  to  it. 


200         PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION 

By  all  odds. 

Must  needs. 

I  must  get  up  by  noon. 

Get  rid  of. 

Get  used  to. 

Never  so  good. 

Whether  or  no. 

I  can't  go  either. 

You  forget  yourself  when  you  speak  so  harshly. 

I  can  come  only  every  other  day. 

If  the  bell  rings  answer  the  door. 

I  take  it  that  you  will  be  there  too. 

Come  and  see  me. 

Try  and  do  it. 

The  thief  took  to  his  heels. 

196.  Choice  of  Words.  The  words  in  which  a  thought 
is  expressed  may  not  offend  against  good  use,  and  yet  still 
be  objectionable  because  they  do  not  accurately  and  appro- 
priately express  the  thought.  One  should  choose  not  merely 
a  word  that  will  approximately  express  the  thought,  but  the 
one  word  that  best  expresses  it.  The  following  suggestions 
are  given  to  aid  in  the  choice  of  words: 

1.  Choose  simple  English  words  and  avoid  what  is  called 
"fine  writing."  Young  writers  and  newspaper  writers  are 
greatly  given  to  this  offense  of  fine  or  bombastic  writing. 
Examples : 

FINE  WRITING  SIMPLE   STYLE 

Was  launched  into  eternity  Was  hanged 

Disastrous  conflagration  Great  fire 

Called  into  requisition  the  services    Sent  for  the  doctor 

of  the  family  physician 

Was  accorded  an  ovation  Was  applauded 

Palatial  mansion  Comfortable  house 

Acute  auricular  perceptions  Sharp  ears 

A  disciple  of  Izaak  Walton  A  fisherman 


WORDS.— SPELLING.— PRONUNCIATION  201 

2.  Distinguish    between    general  and  specific  terms.     In 
some  cases  general  words  may  be  used  to  advantage,  but  more 
often  specific  words  should  be  used,  since  they  call  to  the 
mind  a  definite  image.     Compare  these  sentences: 

The  high  color  of  his  face  showed  his  embarrassment. 
His  crimson  face  showed  his  embarrassment. 

He  was  a  large  man. 

He  was  a  fat  man. 

He  was  a  man  of  large  frame.  * 

He  was  a  tall,  heavily  proportioned  man. 

He  was  a  man  six  feet  four  inches  tall  and  heavy  in  proportion. 

It  was  an  impressive  building. 

It  was  a  building  of  impressive  size. 

It  was  a  building  of  impressive  beauty. 

His  fault  was  robbery. 
His  crime  was  robbery. 

3.  Avoid  over-statement  of  facts.     The  use  of  words  that 
are  too  strong  is  a  fault  especially  characteristic  of  Americans. 
Examples : 

Poor :  The  concert  was  simply  exquisite. 
Better :  The  concert  was  very  good. 

Poor:  She  was  wild  over  the  mistake. 

Better:  She  was  much  annoyed  by  the  mistake. 

4.  Avoid  hackneyed  phrases;  expressions  that  have  been 
worked  to  death.     Examples: 

His  paternal  acres. 

The  infuriated  beast. 

The  gentle  zephyrs  of  springtime. 

Was  gathered  to  his  fathers. 

The  blushing  bride  was  led  to  the  hynieneal  altar. 

Applauded  to  the  echo. 


202  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND   COMPOSITION 

Exercise  83 

For  each  of  the  following  expressions  devise  the  best 
English  expression  that  you  can: 

1.  Individual  was  precipitated. 

2.  Tendered  him  a  banquet. 

3.  At  the  witching  hour  of  midnight. 

4.  The  devouring  element  was  checked. 

5.  Piscatorial  sport. 

6.  Pedal  extremities. 

7.  Fraught  with  tremendous  possibilities. 

8.  Amid  the  plaudits  of  the  multitude. 

9.  Caudal  extremity. 

10.  Passed  to  his  long  home. 

11.  Dissected  the  Thanksgiving  bird 

12.  Presided  at  the  organ. 

13.  Finger  of  scorn  pointed  at  him. 

14.  Wended  his  way. 

15.  The  green  eyed  monster. 

16.  The  whole  aggregation  of  knowledge  chasers. 

17.  Maternal  ancestor. 

18.  Shuffled  off  this  mortal  coil. 

19.  Failed  to  materialize  at  the  banquet. 

20.  Tonsorial  artist. 

21.  Twirler  of  the  sphere. 

22.  Pugilistic  encounters. 

23.  Performed  his  matutinal  ablutions. 

24.  Partook  of  a  magnificent  collation. 

25.  Solemnized  the  rites  of  matrimony. 


Exercise  84 

In  ike  third  paragraph  of  the  selection  from  Cranford  (see 
§  186)  observe  the  use  of  the  following  words:  human,  weakness, 
hanks,  twisted,  annoyed,  and  undoing.  Study  the  specific 
nature  of  these  words  by  grouping  about  each  of  them  other 


WORDS.— SPELLING.— PRONUNCIATION  203 

words  of  somewhat  similar  meaning,  and  then  comparing  the 
force  of  the  various  words  in  each  group. 

This  sort  of  exercise  may  be  continued  by  choosing  passages 
from  any  careful  writer  and  studying  the  words  that  he  has  used. 

Exercise  85 

Substitute  for  each  of  the  following  expressions  some  ex- 
pression that  will  be  less  general  or  less  exaggerated: 

1.  She  is  nice  looking. 

2.  We  had  a  perfectly  gorgeous  time. 

3.  John  is  a  professional  man. 

4.  The  play  was  simply  exquisite. 

5.  To  hear  his  voice  makes  me  feel  funny. 

6.  The  opposing  team  was  completely  annihilated. 

7.  A  noise  caught  our  attention. 

8.  His  manners  are  horrid. 

9.  We  had  a  great  time. 

10.  Such  arrogance  is  unendurable. 

11.  That  is  a  good  book. 

197.     How    to    Improve    One's    Vocabulary.     The    few 

following  suggestions  may  be  found  helpful  in  the  acquiring 
of  a  good  vocabulary: 

1.  Cultivate  the  dictionary  habit.      Learn    the    meaning, 
pronunciation,  and  spelling  of  each  new  word  that  you  meet. 
Only  when  these  three  things  are  grasped  about  each  word, 
does  one  really  know  the  word.     Some  persons  have  found 
it  an  invaluable  aid  to  carry  with  them  a  small  note  book  or 
card  on  which  they  note  down  to  be  looked  up  at  a  convenient 
time  words  concerning  which  they  are  in  doubt. 

2.  In  your  writing  and  speaking  use  as  much  as  possible 
the  new  words  that  you  acquire. 

3.  Construct   good  English  expressions  for  all  the  slang, 
fine  writing,  and  hackneyed  phrases  that  you  meet,  and  then 
use  the  good  expressions  instead  of  the  bad  ones. 


204         PRACTICAL   GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION 

4.  Study  synonyms ;  words  of  similar  form  and  meaning. 
Only  by  a  knowledge  of  synonyms  can  you  express  fine  shades 
of    meaning.      Crabbe's    English    Synonyms    and    Fernald's 
Synonyms  and  Antonyms  are  good  books  of  reference  for  this 
purpose.     In  addition  to  these  books,  lists  of  synonyms  will 
be  found  in  many  books  that  are  designed  for  general  reference. 

5.  Try  to  get  the  one  word  that  will  best  express  the  idea. 

6.  Read  good  books  and  good  magazines,  and  read  them 
carefully. 

7.  Cultivate  the  society  of  those  who  use  good  language. 

Exercise  86 

Look  up  the  meaning  of  each  of  the  words  in  the  following 
groups  of  synonyms.  Construct  sentences  in  which  each  word  is 
used  correctly: 

1.  Love,  like.   . 

2.  Wit,  humor. 

3.  Discover,  invent. 

4.  Observe,  watch. 

5.  Pride,  vanity,  conceit. 

6.  Proof,  evidence,  testimony. 

7.  Balance,  rest,  remainder. 

8.  Word,  term,  expression. 

9.  Bring,  fetch,  carry. 

10.  Abandon,  desert,  forsake. 

11.  Propose,  purpose,  intend. 

12.  Healthful,  healthy,  wholesome. 

13.  Student,  pupil,  scholar. 

14.  Capacity,  power,  ability. 

15.  Blame,  censure,  criticism. 

16.  Accede,  agree,  yield,  acquiesce. 

17.  Trickery,  cunning,  chicane,  fraud. 

18.  Instruction,  education,  training,  tuition. 

19.  Hardship,  obstacle,  hindrance,  difficulty, 


WORDS.— SPELLING.     PRONUNCIATION  205 

20.  Maxim,  precept,  rule,  Uw 

21.  Multitude,  crowd,  thrrog,  £warm. 

22.  Delight,  happiness,  pleasure,  joy. 

23.  Work,  labor,  toil,  drudgery,  task. 

24.  Silent,  mute,  dumb,  speechless. 

25.  Kill,  murder,  assassinate,  slay. 

26.  Hatred,  enmity,  dislike,  ill-will. 

27.  Example,  pattern,  sample,  model. 

28.  Obvious,  plain,  clear,  apparent. 

29.  Noted,  e.minent,  famous,  prominent,  notorious. 

30.  Old,  a£ed,  antique,  ancient,  antiquated,  obsolete. 

SPELLING 

198.  The  following  is  a  list  of  words  that  are  frequently 
misspelled  or  confused.  Where  possible,  an  effort  has  been 
made  to  arrange  them  in  groups  in  order  that  they  may  be 
more  easily  remembered.  The  word  with  an  added  ending  has 
been  used  in  most  cases  in  place  of  the  bare  word  itself  as,  oc~ 
casional  instead  of  occasion.  A  few  rules  have  been  included. 

accede  descend  pressure 

accident  fascinate  misspelled 

accommodate  mischievous  possession 

accordance  miscellaneous 

accuracy  muscle  recollection 

succeed  susceptible  dispelled 

occasional  miscellaneous 

$ccur  existence  monosyllable 

experience  intellectual 

across  sentence  parallel 

amount  embellishment 

apart  foregoing  wholly 

arouse  forehead  woolly 

village 

already  forty  villain 

all  right  foreign  till 

forfeit 


206 


PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION 


amateur 

formally 

perpetual 

grandeur 

formerly 

persuade 

perspiration 

appal 

fulfill 

apparatus 

willful 

police 

appetite 

policies 

approximate 

guardian 

opportunity 

guessing 

presence 

opposite 

precede 

disappoint 

imminent 

preceptor 

disappearance 

immediately 

accommodation 

fiend 

choose 

commission 

siege 

chosen 

grammar 

friend 

inflammation 

yielding 

boundary 

recommend 

elementary 

summary 

seize 

symmetrical 

receive 

final 

committee 

receipt 

finally 

usual 

ledger 

succeed 

usually 

legible 

proceed 

ascend 

assassin 

recede 

ascent 

dissimilar 

secede 

discerning 

essential 

accede 

discipline 

messenger 

intercede 

discontent 

concede 

discreet 

necessary 

supersede 

descent 

necessity 

passport 

199.  Words  ending  in  a  single  consonant  preceded  by  a 
single  vowel,  if  monosyllables,  or  if  the  last  syllable  is  ac- 
cented, double  the  final  consonant  before  the  ending  -ed  and 
-ing,  but  not  before  -ence;  as, 

rob,  robbed,  robbing,  robbers. 

confer,  conferred,  conferring,  conference. 


WORDS.—  SPELLING.—  PRONUNCIATION  207 

transmit,  transmitted,  transmitting,  transmission. 
impel,  impelled,  impelling,  impulsion. 

Similar  to  the  above  are. 

defer,  infer,  prefer,  refer,  transfer,  occur  (occurrence),  abhor 
(abhorrence),  omit,  remit,  permit,  commit,  beset,  impel,  compel, 
repel,  excel  (excellence),  mob,  sob,  rub,  skid. 

If  these  words  are  not  accented  on  the  last  syllable,  the 
consonant  is  not  doubled;  as, 

benefit,  benefited,  benefiting,  benefictoZ. 

Similar  are: 

differ,  summon,  model. 

200.  Words  ending  in  silent  6  drop  the  e  before  a  suffix 
beginning  with  a  vowel;  as, 

arrive,  arriving,  arrived,  arrivaZ. 
precede,  preceded,  preceding,  precedence. 
receive,  received,  receiving. 

Similar  are: 

move,  write,  blame,  tame,  come,  receive,  believe,  relieve,  grieve, 
deceive,  conceive,  perceive,  seize,  precede,  concede,  supersede,  recede, 
argue,  rue,  construe,  woe,  pursue. 

201.  Words  ending  in  -ge,  -ce,  or  -se,  retain  the  e  before 
endings:  as, 

arrange,  arrangement;  arrange,  arranging. 

Similar  are: 

gauge,  manage,  balance,  finance,  peace,  service,  amuse,  use. 


.     Words  in  -dge  do  not  retain  the  e  before  endings;  as, 
acknowledge,  acknowledgment,  acknowledged,  acknowledging. 

Similar  are: 
nudge,  judge. 


208         PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION 


203.     Most  words  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  consonant 
change  y  to  i  before  all  endings  except-ing: 
busy,  business,  busied,  busying. 
Similar  are: 
duty,  mercy,  penny,  pity,  vary,  weary,  study. 


204:.    Words  of  similar  sound 

canvas  (cloth) 

canvass  (all  meanings  except  cloth) 

capitol  (a  building) 

capital  (all  meanings  except  building') 

counsel  (advice  or  an  adviser) 

council  (a  body  of  persons) 

complement  (a  completing  element) 

compliment  (praise) 

205.    Miscellaneous  words: 


annual 

awkward 

beneficial 

decimal 

exhilarate 

familiarize 

fiber 

fibrous 

genuine 

gluey 

height 

hideous 

hundredths 

hysterical 

icicle 

irremediable 

laboratory 

laid 

larynx 


laundry 

leisure 

lenient 

license 

mechanical 

mediaeval 

medicine 

militia 

motor 

negotiate 

origin 

pacified 

phalanx 

physique 

privilege 

prodigies 

rarefy 

rinse 

saucer 


principle  (rule) 
principal  (chief) 
stationary  (immovable) 
stationery  (articles) 
miner  (a  workman) 
minor  (under  age) 
angel  (a  spiritual  being) 
angle  (geometrical) 


schedule 

separate 

Spaniard 

speak 

specimen 

speech 

spherical 

subtle 

surely 

technical 

tenement 

their 

therefore 

thinnest 

until 

vengeance 

visible 

wherein 

yielding 


WORDS.— SPELLING.— PRONUNCIATION  209 


PRONUNCIATION 

2O6.  The  following  list  is  made  up  of  words  that  are 
frequently  mispronounced.  An  effort  has  been  made  to  ar- 
range them  in  groups  according  to  the  most  frequent  source 
of  error  in  their  pronunciation. 

The  only  marks  regularly  used  are  the  signs  for  the  long 
and  short  sounds  of  the  vowel. 

a  as  in  hate  I  as  in  high  u  as  in  use 

&  as  in  hat  I  asm  hit  U  as  in  run 

e  as  in  me  o  as  in  old  do  asm  boot 

e  as. in  met  6  as  in  hop  oo  as  'mfoot 

When  sounds  are  not  otherwise  indicated  take  the  sound 
that  comes  most  naturally  to  the  tongue. 


2O7.    a  as  i 

WORD  CORRECT  PRONUNCIATION 

alma  mater  alma  mater 

apparatus  apparatus 

apricot  apricot 

attache*  attasha' 

audacious  audashus 

ballet  b&l'la 

blase"  Uaza' 

blatant  blatant 

chasten  chosen 

Cleopatra  Cleopatra 

compatriot  compatriot 

gratis  gratis  or  grahtis 

harem  harem  or  hahrem 

heinous  hanous 


210 


PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION 


WORD 

hiatus 

implacable 

nape 

ne'e 

neglige* 

patron 

protege" 

resume* 

tenacious 

tomato 

valet 

vase 

veracious 

vivacious 


CORRECT  PRONUNCIATION 

hiatus 

impldkable 

nap 

na 

ndglezhd'  • 

patron 

protazhaf 

rdzumd' 

tendshus 

tomato  or  tomahto 

v&'la  or  v&l'et 

vds,  vahz,  or  vaz 

verdshus 

vivashus 


208.    a  as  in  hat 

alternative 

Arab 

arid 

asphalt 

bade 

catch 

defalcate 

dilletante 

forbade 

granary 

program 

rapine 

rational 

sacrament 


alternative 

Ar'ab,  not  drab 

dr'id 

asfdlt,  notfawlt 

'bad 

not  ketch 

defal'kdte,  not  fawl 

dilletan'te 

forbad 

granary 

pro' gram,  not  grum 

rap'in 

rational 

sacrament 


2O9.    a  as  in  arm  : 

aunt 

behalf 

calf 


ant 

behdf 

kdf 


WORDS.— SPELLING.— PRONUNCIATION  211 

WORD  CORRECT  PRONUNCIATION 


calm 
half 
laugh 
psalm 


kdm 
hdf 
laf 
sdm 


21O.    e  as  in  me: 

amenable 

clique 

creek 

either 

mediocre 

naive 

neither 

precedence 

precedent/ 

predecessor 

predilection 

premature 

quay 

resplendent 

sacrilegious 

series 

sleek 

suite 


amenable 

klek,  not  klick 

krek,  not  krick 

eether  (preferable) 

mediocre 

na'eve  (a  as  in  arm) 

neither  (preferable) 

precedence 

precedent  (when  an  adjective) 

predecessor 

predilection 

prematu  e 

ke 

resplen'dent 


not  -religious 
serez 

slek,  not  slick 
swet,  not  Uke  boot 


211.    easin/wef; 

again 

against 

crematory 

deaf 

heroine 

measure 

metric 

precedent 


agZn 
agenst 
krSm'atory 
def,  not  def 
Mroln,  not  like  hero 
mezhure,  not  ma 
metrik 
precedent  (noun) 


212         PRACTICAL  GHAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION 

WORD  CORRECT  PRONUNCIATION 

prelate  prel'at 

presentation  prezentation 

sesame  ses'ame 

steady  stedy,  not  stlddy 

tenet  Met 

weapon  w$pon,  not  wepon 


212.    I  as  in  high 

appendicitis 

biennial 

biography 

bronchitis 

carbine 

decisive 

.demise 

dynasty 

finis 

grimy 

hiatus 

inquiry 

long-lived 

peritonitis 

privacy 

short-lived 

simultaneous 

tiny 


appendicitis 

biennial 

biography 

bronkltis 

carbine 

decisive 

demise 


finis 

grimy 

hia'tus 

inqul'ry 

long-lwd 

peritonitis 

privacy 

short-llvd 

simultaneous 

tiny,  not  teny 


213. 


bicycle 

breeches 

breechirg 

feminine 

genuine 

hypocrisy 


U'slcle 


briching 
feminln 
genuln 
hlpdk'rlsy 


WORDS.— SPELLING.— PRONUNCIATION 


213 


•  WORD 

italic 

Italian 

maritime 

pretty 

puerile 

respite 

tribune 

214.  6  as  in  old: 

Adonis 

apropos 

bowsprit 

brooch 

compromise 

jowl 

molecular 

ogle 

trow 

vocable 

zoology 

215.  6  as  in  hop: 

choler 

dolorous 

florid 

molecule 

obelisk 

probity 

solecism 

solstice 

stolid 

216.  oo  as  in  boot: 

bouquet 
canteloupe 
coup  d'e*tat 
15 


CORRECT  PRONUNCIATION 

Ml'lk 

italyan 

marttlm 

prUty 

pu'eril 

res'ptt 

trlb'un 


Adonis 

apropo 

bowsprit 

broch  not  broosh 

compromize 

jol,  not  like  owl 

molecular 

ogle 

tro 

vocable 

zoology,  not  zoo 


kdler 

ddlorous 

fldrid 

mdlecule 

dbelisk 

prdbity 

sdlesism 

stilstice 

stdlid 


booka' 
can'taloop 
koff  data' 


214 


PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION 


WORD                         CORRECT  PRONUNCIATION 

coupon 

koo'pdn 

ghoul 

gool 

hoof 

hoof 

roof 

roof 

root 

root 

route 

root 

routine 

rootine 

wound 

woond 

317. 

u  as  in  use  : 

accurate 

ak'kurat 

culinary 

kulinary 

gubernatorial 

gubernatorial 

jugular 

jugular 

218. 

u  as  in  us  : 

constable 

kunstable 

courtesan 

kur'tezan 

hover 

huver 

iron 

iurn 

monetary 

munetary 

nothing 

nuthing 

wont 

wunt  (different  from  won't) 

219. 

Miscellaneous  words 

. 

adobe 

ado'ba 

algebra 

not  bra 

alien 

alyen,  not  alien 

ameliorate 

amelyorate 

antarctic 

antarktik 

anti 

not  ant  I 

archangel 

arkangel 

archbishop 

arch,  not  ark 

arch  fiend 

arch,  not  ark 

architect 

arkitect 

WORDS.— SPELLING.— PRONUNCIATION 


215 


WORD 

awkward 

Beethoven 

Bingen 

blackguard 

Bowdoin 

brougham 

business 

caldron 

calk 

Cayenne 

courtier 

cuckoo 

dilemma 

directly 

dishevelled 

Don  Juan 

drought 

drouth 

extempore 

familiarity 

gaol 

genealogy 

genius 

Gloucester 

gooseberry 

Hawaiian 

Helena 

inconvenience 

Israel 

jeans 

joust 

larynx 

literature 

Messrs. 

mineralogy 

nature 


CORRECT  PRONUNCIATION 

awkward,  not  ard 

bdtoven 

Blng'en 

blag'gard 

bodn 

broom 

bizness 

kawldron 

kawk 

kien' 

kortyer 

kookoo 

dilem'ma 

not  directly 

dishev'ld 

Don  Juan  or  hooan 

drowt 

drowth 

extempore  (four  syllables) 

familyarity 

jdl 

-alogy,  not  -ology 

genyus 

gloster 

godz,  not  gods 

Hawl'yan  (a  as  in  arm) 

hel'ena  (except  St.  Heti'na) 

inconvenyence 

izrael,  not  issrael 

janes 

just  or  jodst 

l&r'inx'or'la'rinx,  not  larnix 

literature,  or  choor 

meshyerz  or  mesyerz 

-alogy,  not  -ology 

nature,  or  choor 


216          PRACTICAL   GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION 
WORD  CORRECT  PRONUNCIATION 

oleomargarine  g  is  hard,  as  in  get 

orchid  orkid 

oust  owst,  not  dost 

peculiar  peculyar 

pecuniary  pekun'yari 

perspiration  not  prespiration 

prestige  pres'tlj  or  prestezh' 

pronunciation  pronunzedshun  or  pronunsheashun 

saucy  not  sassy 

schedu'e  skedy&l 

semi  not  semi 

theater  the'ater  not  thea'ter 

turgid  turjid 

usage  uzage 

usurp  uzurp 

vermilion  vermilyun 

wife's  not  wives 

Xerxes  zerxes 

£2Q.    Words  with  a  silent  letter: 

almond  ahmtind 

chasten  chosen 

chestnut  chesnut 

glisten  glissen 

kiln  kill 

often  ofen 

ostler  dsler 

poignant  poin'ant 

psalter  sawlter 

salmon  samun 

schism  sism 

soften  sofen 

subtle  sutle 

sword  sord 

thyme  time 

toward  tord 


WORDS.— SPELLING.— PRONUNCIATION  217 

221.    Works  chiefly  of  foreign  pronunciation: 

WORD  CORRECT  PRONUNCIATION 


bivouac 

biv'wak 

charge"  d'affaires 

shar  zha'daffar' 

connoisseur 

connissur 

dishabille 

dis'abil 

ennui 

onwe,  not  ongwe 

finale 

finah'le 

foyer 

fwaya' 

massage 

masahzh 

naive 

nah'ev 

papier  mache* 

papyd  mahshd 

piquant* 

pe'kant 

prima  facie 

prima  fa'shie 

pro  tempore 

pro  tSm'pore 

regime 

razhem' 

222.    Words  often 

pronounced  with  a  wrong  number  of 

syllables  : 

aerial 

dereal,  not  areal 

athlete 

two  syl  ables,  not  ath  e  lete 

attacked 

attakt,  two  syllables 

casualty 

kazh'ualte,  not  ality 

conduit 

cdndit  or  kundit,  not  dooit 

different 

three  syllables,  not  diffrunt 

elm 

not  ellum 

helm 

not  hel  um 

history 

three  syllables,  not  histry 

honorable 

not  honrable 

hygienic 

hy  gi  en'  ic,  four  syllables 

interest 

not  intrust 

interesting 

not  intrusting 

ivory 

not  ivry 

omelet 

not  omlet 

realm 

not  rellum 

separable 

not  seprdble 

218          PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION 
WORD  CORRECT  PRONUNCIATION 


ticklish 
valuable 
vaudeville 
Zeus 


two  syllables,  not  tickelish 

valuable,  not  voluble 

vddvll 

zus,  not  zeus 


223.    Words  accented  on  the  first  syllable : 


admirable 

alias 

applicable 

bicycle 

chastisement 

construe 

despicable 

desultory 

disputant 

exigency 

explicable 

exquisite 

extant 

formidable 

Genoa 

gondola 

harass 

hospitable 

impious 

industry 

inventory 

lamentable 

mischievous 

obligatory 

pariah 

peremptory 

preferable 

Romola 

vehemence 


ad'mirahle 

a'lias 

applicable 

Tn'slkle 

chas'tisement 

con'strue 

des'picdble 

des'ultory 

dis'putant 

exlijency 

explicable 

ex'quisite 

ex'tant 

for'midable 

jen'oa 

gon'dola 

har'ass 

hos'pitable 

im'pious,  not  impious 

in'dustry 

in'ventory 

lam'entable 

mis' chievous 

obligatory 

pa'riah 

peremptory 

preferable 

Rom'ola 

ve'hemence 


WORDS.— SPELLING.— PRONUNCIATION 


219 


224:.    Words  accented  on  the  second  syllable : 

WORD  CORRECT  PRONUNCIATION 


abdomen 

acclimate 

acumen 

albumen 

artificer 

bitumen 

chicanery 

illustrate 

incognito 

incomparable 

indisputable 

inexorable 

inexplicable 

inhospitable 

inquiry 

irrevocable 

misconstrue 

nitrogenous 

opponent 

pianist 

refutable 

syllabic 

telegraphy 

vagary 

Yosemite 


abdo'men 

accll'mate 

acu'men 

albu'men 

artifiser 

bitu'men 

shikd'nery 

illus'trate 

Inkdg'nlto 

incom' 'parable 

indisputable 

inex'orable 

inexplicable 

inhos'pitable 

inqul'ry 

irrevocable 

miscon'strue 

nitroj'enous 

oppo'nent 

pian'ist 

refut'able 

syllab'ic 

teleg'raphy 

vaga'ry 

yd  sem'  I  te 


225.    Words  accented  on  the  last  syllable: 


address 

adept 

adult 

ally 

commandant 

contour 


address' 

adept' 

adult' 

ally' 

commandant'  (a  as  in  arm) 

contour' 


220 


PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR  AND  COMPOSITION 


WORD 

dessert 

dilate 

excise 

finance 

grimace 

importune 

occult 

pretence 

research 

robust 

romance 

tirade 


CORRECT  PRONUNCIATION 

dessert' 

dilate' 

ekslz' 

finance' 

grimace' 

importune' 

occult' 

pretence' 

research' 

robust' 

romance' 

tirade' 


226.    Words  whose  pronunciation  depends  on  meaning: 

accent  Accent'  the  first  syllable. 

Place  the  ac'cent  upon  the  first  syllable. 

aged  An  a'ged  man. 

Properly  aged  wine  (one  syllable). 

blessed  The  bless' ed  saints. 

Let  them  be  blessed  (one  syllable). 

contrast         The  strange  con'trast. 
Contrast'  the  two. 

converse        D  d  you  converse'  with  him? 

Is  the  con'verse  true? 
desert  The  sandy  des'ert. 

They  desert'  their  friends. 

learned          He  learned  'one  syllable)  to  sing. 
A  learn  ed  man. 

precedent      A  prece'dent  place. 

It  establishes  a  prec'edent. 

project  A  new  proj'ect. 

To  project  from. 


GLOSSARY   OF   MISCELLANEOUS   ERRORS 

Admire.     Do  not  use  admire  in  the  sense  of  like. 

Wrong :  I  should  admire  to  be  able  to  do  that. 
Right:  I  should  like  to  be  able  to  do  that. 

Aggravate.  Do  not  use  aggravate  in  the  sense  of  irritate 
or  disturb.  Aggravate  means  to  make  worse. 

Wrong:  His  impudence  aggravates  me. 
Right:  His  impudence  irritates  me. 

Ain't.  Ain't  and  hain't  are  never  proper  as  contractions 
of  am  not,  is  not,  or  are  not. 

Allow.  Do  not  use  allow  in  the  sense  of  assert,  say,  or 
intend. 

Wrong:  He  allowed  that  he  had  better  start.  I  allow  to  be  back 
before  noon. 

Right :  He  said  that  he  had  better  start.  I  intend  to  be  back  before 
noon. 

Allude.  Do  not  use  allude  in  the  sense  of  refer.  To 
allude  to  a  thing  means  to  refer  to  it  in  an  indirect  way. 

Wrong :  He  alluded  by  name  to  John  Milton. 

Right:  He  alluded  to  Milton  by  the  term  "Blind  Poet. " 

Any.     Do  not  use  any  in  the  sense  of  at  all  or  to  any  degree. 

Wrong:  Because  of  the  injury  he  can  not  see  any. 

As.     Do  not  use  as  for  the  relative  pronouns  who  and  that. 

Wrong:  I  am  the  man  as  digs  your  garden.     Not  as  I  remember. 
Right :  I  am  the  man  who  digs  your  garden.     Not  that  I  remember. 

221 


222  GLOSSARY  OF  MISCELLANEOUS  ERRORS 

As.     Do  not  use  as  in  the  sense  of  since  or  because. 

Wrong:  I  cannot  come  as  I  am  sick  now. 
Right:  I  cannot  come;  I  am  sick  now. 
Right :  I  cannot  come  because  I  am  sick  now. 

At.     Do  not  use  at  for  in  with  the  names  of  large  cities. 

Wrong :  He  lives  at  Philadelphia. 
Right :  He  lives  in  Philadelphia. 

Attackted.     Do  not  use  this  form  for  attacked. 

Awful,  awfully.     These  are  two  very  much  overworked 
words.     Substitute  other  and  more  accurate  expressions. 

Wrong:  We  have  had  an  awfully  good  time.    That  is  an  awfully 
pretty  dress. 

Right :  We  have  had  an  exceedingly  nice  time.     That  is  a  very  pretty 


Badly.     Do  not  use  badly  in  the  sense  of  very  much. 

Wrong :  She  wanted  badly  to  come. 
Right :  She  wanted  very  much  to  come. 

Beside,  besides.     Beside  means  next  to.     Besides  means  in 
addition  to. 

Right :  John  lives  beside  his  mother. 

Right :  Besides  the  daughters,  there  are  three  sons. 

Between.     Do  not  use  between  when  referring  to  more  than 
two  objects. 

Wrong:  There  is  bad  feeling  between  the  members  of  the  class. 
Right :  There  is  bad  feeling  among  the  members  of  the  class. 

Blowed.     Do  not  use  blowed  for  blew  or  blown.     There 
is  no  such  word. 


GLOSSARY  OF  MISCELLANEOUS  ERRORS  223 

Best.  Do  not  use  best  when  only  two  objects  are  referred 
to.  Use  better.  Best  should  be  used  only  when  more  than 
two  are  referred  to. 

Wrong:  He  is  the  best  of  the  two  brothers. 

Right :  He  is  the  better  of  the  two  brothers. 

Right :  He  is  the  best  of  the  three  brothers. 

Bound.     Do  not  use  bound  for  determined. 
Wrong:  He  was  bound  to  go  skating. 
Right :  He  was  determined  to  go  skating. 
Right :  He  bound  himself  to  pay  three  hundred  dollars. 

But.  Do  not  use  but  after  a  negative  in  the  sense  of  only. 
See  §46. 

Wrong:  There  isn't  but  one  apple  left. 
Right :  There  is  but  one  apple  left. 

Calculate.  Do  not  use  calculate  in  the  sense  of  think,  ex- 
pect, or  intend. 

Can.     Do  not  use  can  to  denote  permission.     It  denotes 
ability  or  possibility.     May  denotes  permission.     See  §  69 
Wrong:  Can  I  speak  to  you  for  a  minute? 
Right:  May  I  speak  to  you  for  a  moment? 

Character,  reputation.  Do  not  confuse  these  two  words. 
Character  means  one's  moral  condition.  Reputation  means  the 
morality  that  others  believe  one  to  possess. 

Clum.     There  is  no  such  form  of  the  verb  climb. 

Complected.  Do  not  use  complected  for  complexioned.  See 
§40. 

Conclude.  Do  not  use  conclude  in  the  sense  of  forming  an 
intention. 

Right :  Finally,  I  decided  to  go  home. 

Right :  I  was  forced  to  conclude  that  I  had  made  an  e»ror. 


224  GLOSSARY  OF  MISCELLANEOUS  ERRORS 

Considerable.  Do  not  use  considerable  in  the  sense  of  very 
much. 

Wrong:  This  lesson  is  considerable  better  than  yesterday's. 

Cute.  A  much  overworked  word.  Use  some  expression 
that  is  more  accurate;  as,  pretty,  amusing,  etc. 

Decease,  disease.  Do  not  confuse  decease  and  disease. 
The  first  means  death,  the  second  sickness.  The  deceased 
means  a  person  who  is  dead. 

Wrong:  The  diseased  will  be  buried  at  four  o'clock. 

Wrong:  The  property  of  the  diseased  will  be  sold  at  auction. 

Decease.     Do  not  use  decease  as  a  verb  in  the  sense  of  die. 
Wrong :  His  father  deceased  last  year. 

.    Demand.     Demand  should  not  have  a  person  as  its  object. 
Wrong:  He  demanded  John  to  pay. 

Right :  He  demanded  payment  from" John.  He  demanded  that  John 
pay. 

Different.  Use  the  preposition  from  after  different,  not 
than. 

Don't.  Do  not  use  don't  with  a  subject  in  the  third  person 
singular.  See  §64. 

Down.  Do  not  use  down  as  a  verb  in  the  sense  of  defeat 
or  overthrow. 

Wrong:  Our  football  team  has  downed  every  other  team  in  the  state. 
Right :  Our  football  team  has  defeated  every  other  team  in  the  state. 

Drownded.  Drownded  is  not  a  proper  form  of  the  verb 
drown.  Say  drowned.  (Pronounced  drownd.) 

Each  other.  Do  not  use  each  other  to  refer  to  more  than 
two  objects.  See  §44. 

Wrong:  The  members  of  the  regiment   helped  each  other. 
Right:  The  members  of  the  regiment  helped  one  another. 


GLOSSARY  OF  MISCELLANEOUS  ERRORS  225 

Effect,  affect.  Do  not  confuse  effect  and  affect.  Effect 
means  a  result,  or  to  cause  a  thing  to  be  done.  Affect  means 
to  disturb  or  have  an  influence  on. 

Wrong:  The  news  effected  him  seriously. 
Right :  The  news  affected  him  seriously. 

Wrong :  The  affect  of  this  news  was  to  cause  war. 
Right:  The  effect  of  this  news  was  to  cause  war. 

Either.  Do  not  use  either  with  reference  to  more  than  two 
objects,  nor  follow  it  by  a  plural  verb.  See  §  43. 

Wrong:  Either  of  the  three  will  do.  Either  you  or  John  have 
done  it. 

Right :  Any  one  of  the  three  will  do.    Either  you  or  John  has  done  it. 

Emigrate,  immigrate.  Do  not  confuse  emigrate  and  im- 
migrate. To  emigrate  means  to  go  out  of  a  place,  to  immigrate 
means  to  come  into  a  place. 

Right:  The  Italians  emigrate  from  their  country. 
Right:  Of  those  who  immigrate  to  America,  a  large  number  are 
Italians. 

Enough.  Do  not  follow  enough  by  a  clause  beginning  with 
that  or  so  that. 

Wrong:  I  studied  enough  that' I  could  recite  the  lesson. 
Right :  I  studied  enough  to  recite  the  lesson. 

Enthuse.  Do  not  use  enthuse  in  the  sense  of  to  create  en- 
thusiasm. 

Wrong:  He  tried  to  enthuse  his  audience. 

Right :  He  tried  to  arouse  enthusiasm  in  his  audience. 

Etc.  Etc.  stands  for  et  cetera,  and  means  and  so  forth. 
Do  not  spell  it  ect.  Do  not  use  it  in  composition  that  is  in- 
tended to  be  elegant. 

Everybody.  Everybody  should  not  be  followed  by  a  plural 
verb  or  a  plural  pronoun.  See  §21.  , 


226  GLOSSARY  OF  MISCELLANEOUS  ERRORS 

Except,  accept.     Do  not  confuse  these  two  words.     Accept 
means  to  acknowledge.    Except  means  to  exclude. 

Right:  I  cannot  accept  such  slovenly  work. 
Wrong:  I  except  your  apology. 

Except.     Do  not  use  except  for  unless.     See  §  85. 
Wrong :  I  can  not  sleep  except  it  is  quiet. 

Expect.     Do  not  use  expect  in  the  sense  of  suppose  or  think. 

Wrong :  I  expect  you  have  read  that  book. 
Right :  I  suppose  you  have  read  that  book. 

Fine.     Do  not  use  fine  in  place  of  some  more  definite 
word.     Fine  is  a  much  over-worked  word. 

Wrong:  The  book  is  fine  for  class-room  work. 
Right :  The  book  is  well  adapted  for  class-room  work. 

Firstly.     Firstly  should  never  be  used.    Say  first.    See  §  40. 

First-rate.     Do  not  use  first-rate  as  an  adverb  in  the  sense 
of  very  well. 

Wrong:  That  does  first-rate. 
Right :  That  does  very  well. 
Right :  He  is  a  first-rate  fellow. 

Former.     Do  not  use  former  when  more  than  two  are  re- 
ferred to.     Say  first.     See  §41. 

From.     Do  not  use  from  with  whence,  hence  and  thence. 

Wrong:  From  whence  have  you  come? 

Right:  Whence  have  you  come?    From  where  have  you  come? 

Funny.     Do  not  use  funny  for  singular  or  strange.     Funny 
is  an  overworked  word. 

Wrong:  It  is  funny  that  he  died. 
Right :  It  is  singular  that  he  died. 

Gent.     Do  not  use  the  word  at  all.     Say  gentleman  or  man. 


GLOSSARY  OF   MISCELLANEOUS  ERRORS  227 

Gentleman.  Do  not  use  gentleman  to  denote  sex  only. 
Say  man.  Gentleman  is  properly  used,  however,  to  denote  a 
person  of  refinement. 

Wrong :  Only  gentlemen  are  allowed  to  vote  in  Pennsylvania. 
Right :  Mr.  Lincoln  was  a  gentleman  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word. 

Got.  Do  not  use  got  with  have  or  had  to  indicate  merely 
possession  or  obligation.  Got  means  acquired  through  effort. 

Wrong:  I  have  got  the  measles.     You  have  got  to  do  it. 
Right:  I  have  the  measles.     You  must  do  it. 
Right:  After  much  study  I  have  got  my  lesson. 

Grand.  Do  not  use  grand  in  place  of  some  more  definite 
and  accurate  expression.  It  is  another  over-worked  word. 

Wrong:  We  have  had  a  grand  time  this  afternoon. 
Right :  We  have  had  a  very  pleasant  time  this  afternoon. 

Guess.     Do  not  use  guess  in  the  sense  of  think  or  suppose. 

Wrong:  I  guess  the  trains  are  late  to-day. 
Right :  I  suppose  the  trains  are  late  to-day. 
Right:  Can  you  guess  the  riddle? 

Had  ought.     Do  not  use  had  with  ought.     See  §  54. 

Hardly.     Do  not  use  hardly  after  a  negative.     See  §  46e 

Wrong :  I  can  not  hardly  believe  that. 
Right :  I  can  hardly  believe  that. 

Have.     Do  not  use  have  after  had. 

Wrong:  If  I  had  have  been  able  to  go. 
Right :  If  I  had  been  able  to  go. 

Heighth.     Do  not  use  heighth  for  height. 


228  GLOSSARY  OF   MISCELLANEOUS  ERRORS 

Hung.     Do  not  confuse  Ming  and  hanged.     Hanged  is  the 
proper  word  to  use  in  reference  to  executions. 
Wrong :  He  was  condemned  to  be  hung. 
Right :  He  was  condemned  to  be  hanged. 
Right:  The  picture  was  hung  in  the  parlor. 

Humbug.     Do  not  use  humbug  as  a  verb. 
Wrong:  He  has  humbugged  the  people  for  years. 

Illy.     Do  not  use  illy  for  the  adverb  ill.     See  §  40. 

In,  into.     Do  not  confuse  in  and  into. 
Wrong :  He  went  in  the  house. 
Right :  He  went  into  the  house. 
Right :  He  exercised  in  a  gymnasium. 

Kind.     Do  not  precede  kind  by  those  or  these. 
Wrong:  I  do  not  like  those  kind  of  plays. 
Right :  I  do  not  like  that  kind  of  play. 

Kind  of  a.     Do  not  use  a  or  an  after  kind  of.     See  §  47. 
Wrong :  It  is  one  kind  of  a  mistake. 
Right :  It  is  one  kind  of  mistake. 

Lady.     Do   not   use  lady  to   designate  sex   only.     It  is 
properly  used  to  indicate  persons  of  refinement. 

Wrong:  Is  Mrs.  Johnson  a  colored  lady  ? 

Right :  Is  Mrs.  Johnson  a  colored  woman  ? 

Right :  Mrs.  Johnson  is  a  colored  woman,  and  a  lady. 

Latter.     Do  not  use  latter  to  refer  to  more  than  two  ob- 
jects.    Use  last.     See  §41. 

Lay.     Do  not  confuse  lay  and  lie.     See  §  57. 

Learn.     Do  not  confuse  learn  and  teach.     Learn  means  to 
acquire  knowledge.     Teach  means  to  impart  knowledge. 
Wrong :  He  can  learn  you  as  much  as  any  one  can. 
Right :  He  can  teach  you  as  much  as  any  one  can. 


GLOSSARY  OF  MISCELLANEOUS  ERRORS  229 

Leave.     Do  not  confuse  leave  and  let.     Leave  means  to  let 
remain.     Let  means  to  give  permission. 

Wrong:  Will  your  mother  leave  you  go? 
Right:  Will  your  mother  let  you  go? 
Right :  I  shall  leave  my  trunk  in  my  room. 

Liable.     Do  not  use  liable  for  likely. 

Wrong :  It  is  liable  to  rain  to-day. 

Right :  It  is  likely  to  rain  to-day. 

Right :  He  is  liable  for  all  that  he  has  agreed  to  pay. 

Lightning.     Do  not  use  lightning  as  a  verb  in  place  of 
lightens. 

Wrong:  During  the  storm,  it  lightnings  frequently. 
Right:  During  the  storm,  it  lightens  frequently. 

Like.     Do  not  use  like  for  as.    Like  is  a  preposition.    As  is 
a  conjunction. 

Wrong:  He  doesn't  talk  like  he  did  yesterday. 
Right :  He  doesn't  talk  as  he  did  yesterday. 
Right:  It  looks  like  a  mahogany  chair. 

Lit  on.     Do  not  use  lit  on  in  the  sense  of  met  with  or  dis- 
covered. 

Wrong:  I  at  last  lit  on  this  plan. 

Lot.     Do  not  use  lot  in  the  sense  of  a  great  number  or  a 
great  deal. 

Wrong:  A  lot  of  people  were  there,     She  talks  a  lot. 

Most.     Do  not  use  most  for  almost. 

Wrong:  I  have  most  completed  the  book. 
Right :  I  have  almost  completed  the  book. 
Right :  He  has  done  the  most  of  the  work. 

Mrs.     Do  not  use  Mrs.  before  titles;  as,  Mrs.  President,, 
Mrs.  Professor,  Mrs.  Doctor. 
16 


230  GLOSSARY  OF  MISCELLANEOUS  ERRORS 

Much.  Do  not  use  much  for  many.  Much  refers  to 
quantity.  Many  refers  to  number. 

Wrong:  As  much  as  five  hundred  people  were  present. 
Right :  As  many  as  five  hundred  people  were  present. 

Mutual.  Do  not  confuse  mutual  and  common.  Mutual 
means  interchanged. 

Wrong :  John  and  William  had  a  mutual  liking  for  Mary. 
Right:  John  and  William  had  a  common  liking  for  Mary. 
Right :  John  and  William  had  a  mutual  liking  for  each  other. 

Near.     Do  not  use  near  for  nearly. 

Wrong:  He  ran  near  all  the  way  to  the  station.  I  came  nearly 
making  the  same  mistake. 

Right :  He  ran  nearly  all  the  way  to  the  station.  I  came  near  making 
the  same  mistake. 

Nerve.     Do  not  use  nerve  in  the  sense  of  impudence. 
Newsy.     Do  not  use  newsy  in  the  sense  of  full  of  news. 

Neither.  Do  not  use  neither  with  reference  to  more  than 
two  objects,  nor  follow  it  by  a  plural  verb. 

Wrong:  Neither  of  the  three  could  come.  Neither  of  the  two  are 
here. 

Right :  No  one  of  the  three  could  come.    Neither  of  the  two  is  here. 

No  good.  Do  not  use  no  good  in  the  sense  of  worthless  or 
not  good. 

Wrong :  The  book  is  no  good. 

No  place.     Do  not  use  no  place  after  a  negative.    See  §  46. 

Wrong :  I  am  not  going  no  place. 

Right :  I  am  not  going  anywhere.    I  am  going  nowhere. 

Notorious.  Do  not  use  notorious  in  the  sense  of  famous  or 
noted.  Notorious  means  of  evil  reputation. 

Wrong :  Gladstone  was  a  notorious  statesman  of  England. 
Right :  Several  notorious  thieves  were  arrested. 


GLOSSARY  OF   MISCELLANEOUS  ERRORS  231 

Nowhere  near.     Do  not  use  nowhere  near  for  not  nearly. 
See  §  40. 

Wrong:  Nowhere  near  so  many  people  came  as  were  expected. 
Right :  Not  nearly  so  many  people  came  as  were  expected. 
Right: 'James  was  nowhere  near  the  scene  of  the  fire. 

Of.     Do  not  use  of  for  have  in  such  expressions  as  could, 
have,  might  have,  should  have,  etc. 
Wrong:  If  I  could  of  been  there. 
Right :  If  I  could  have  been  there. 

Only.     Guard  against  the  improper  use  of  only  after  a 
negative.     See  §  46. 

Wrong:  There  are  not  only  four  books  on  that  subject. 
Right:  There  are  only  four  books  on  that  subject. 

Outside  of.     Do  not  use  outside  of  for  aside  from. 
Wrong :  Outside  of  James,  all  had  a  good  time. 
Right :  Aside  from  James,  all  had  a  good  time. 

Over  with.     Do  not  use  over  with  for  over. 
Wrong :  I  must  write  the  letter  and  have  it  over  with. 

Pants.     Do  not  use  the  word  pants  for  trousers. 
Photo.     Do  not  use  photo  for  photograph. 

Piece.     Do  not  use  piece  in  the  sense  of  way  or  distance. 

Wrong:  I  shall  walk  a  little  piece  with  you. 
Right :  I  shall  walk  a  little  way  with  you. 

Place.     Do  not  use  place  after  any,  every,  no,  etc.,  in  the 
sense  of  anywhere,  everywhere,  nowhere,  etc. 
Wrong :  I  can  not  find  it  any  place. 
Right :  I  can  not  find  it  anywhere. 

Plenty.     Do  not  use  plenty  as  an  adjective  or  an  adverb. 
Wrong:  Money  is  plenty.     He  is  plenty  able  to  do  it. 
Right :  Money  is  plentiful.    He  is  quite  able  to  do  it. 


232  GLOSSARY  OF   MISCELLANEOUS  ERRORS 

Poorly.     Do  not  use  poorly  for  ill  or  bad. 
Wrong:  He  feels  very  poorly. 

Principle,  principal.  Do  not  confuse  principle  and  prin- 
cipal. Principle  means  a  rule  or  truth.  Principal  means 
leader,  chief,  the  most  important. 

Propose.     Do  not  use  propose  in  the  sense  of  intend. 
Wrong:  I  propose  to  tell  all  I  know. 
Right :  I  intend  to  tell  all  I  know. 

Providing.     Do  not  use  providing  for  if  or  on  the  condition. 
Wrong:  I  will  go  providing  you  can  get  tickets  for  three. 
Right :  I  will  go  on  the  condition  that  you  get  the  tickets. 

Raise,  rise.     Do  not  confuse  raise  with  rise.     See  §  57. 

Recommend,  recommendation.  Do  not  use  recommend 
as  a  noun.  Recommendation  is  the  noun. 

Wrong :  Her  employer  gave  her  a  good  recommend. 
Right :  Her  employer  gave  her  a  good  recommendation. 

Right  away,  right  off.  Do  not  use  right  away  or  right 
off  in  the  sense  of  immediately. 

Wrong:  After  the  play  we  will  come  right  off. 
Right :  After  the  play  we  will  come  at  once. 

Same.     Do  not  use  same  as  a  pronoun. 
Wrong :  I  will  write  the  letter  and  mail  same  at  once. 
Right :  I  will  write  the  letter  and  mail  it  at  once. 

Say.     Do  not  use  say  in  the  sense  of  order  or  command. 
Wrong:  Your  mother  said  for  you  to  come  home  at  once. 
Right :  Your  mother  said  that  you  should  come  home  at  once. 

Scarcely.     Do  not  use  scarcely  after  a  negative.     See  §  46. 

Wrong:  There  was  not  scarcely  a  pound  of  meat  for  us  all. 
Right :  There  was  scarcely  a  pound  of  meat  for  us  all. 


GLOSSARY  OF   MISCELLANEOUS  ERRORS  233 

Seldom  ever.  Do  not  use  seldom  with  ever.  Say  instead 
seldom  or  seldom,  if  ever. 

Wrong :  Fires  seldom  ever  occur. 

Right :  Fires  seldom  occur.     Fires  seldom,  if  ever  occur. 

Shut  of.     Do  not  use  shut  of  in  the  sense  of  rid  of. 
Wrong :  We  are  shut  of  him  at  last. 

Sight.     Do  not  use  sight  in  the  sense  of  many  or  much. 
Wrong :  A  great  sight  of  people  flocked  to  hear  him. 
Right :  A  great  many  people  flocked  to  hear  him. 

Sit,  set.     Do  not  confuse  these  two  words.     See  §57. 

So.     Do  not  use  so  alone  as  a  conjunction.     Say  so  that. 
Wrong:  He  spoke  in  the  open  air,  so  more  could  see  and  hear  him. 
Right :  He  spoke  in  the  open  air,  so  that  more  could  see  and  hear  him. 

Some.  Do  not  use  some  as  an  adverb  in  the  sense  of  some- 
what or  a  little. 

Wrong :  He  plays  the  violin  some. 
Right :  He  plays  the  violin  a  little. 

Sort  of  a.     Do  not  use  a  after  sort  of.     See  Kind  of  a. 
Sort.     Do  not  precede  sort  by  these  or  those.     See  Kind. 

Such.  Do  not  follow  such  byt  who,  which,  or  that  as  rela- 
tives. 

Wrong:  All  such  persons  who  think  so  will  soon  see  their  mistake. 

Right :  All  such  persons  as  think  so  will  soon  see  their  mistake. 

Right:  He  spoke  with  such  force  that  we  were  compelled  to  listen. 
(That  is  not  a  relative  here.) 

Tasty.     Do  not  use  tasty  in  the  sense  of  tasteful. 

That.     Do  not  use  that  as  an  adverb. 
Wrong :  I  did  not  think  the  book  was  that  small. 
Right:  I  did  not  think  that  the  book  was  so  small. 


234  GLOSSARY  OF  MISCELLANEOUS  ERRORS 

That  there,  this  here,  these  here,  those  there.     There  and 
here,  in  all  these  expressions  are  worse  than  unnecessary. 

Them  there.     Do  not  use  them  there  for  those. 

Wrong:  Bring  me  them  there  books. 
Right :  Bring  me  those  books. 

Three  first,  two  first,  etc.     Do  not  say  three  -first,  but  first 
three.     There  can  be  only  one  first. 

Too.     Do  not  use  too  alone  before  a  verb  or  a  participle. 

Wrong :  He  is  too  excited  to  listen  to  you. 
Right:  He  is  too  much  excited  to  listen  to  you. 

Very.     Do  not  use  very  alone  before  a  verb  or  a  participle. 
Wrong :  You  are  very  mistaken. 
Right :  You  are  very  much  mistaken. 

Wait  on,  wait  for.     Do  not  confuse  these  two  expressions. 
Wait  on  means  to  serve.     Wait  for  means  to  await. 
Wrong:  Do  not  wait  on  me  if  I  do  not  come  at  noon. 
Right :  Do  not  wait  for  me  if  I  do  not  come  at  noon. 

Wake,  awake.    Do  not  confuse  wake  and  awake.    See  §57. 


INDEX 


References  are  to  pages.  Sections  or  subdivisions  on  the  pages  are 
sometimes  indicated  in  parenthesis  after  the  page  numbers. 

Since  the  EXERCISES  follow  throughout  the  subjects  treated,  exer- 
cises on  any  subject  may  be  found  by  looking  up  that  subject  in  this 
text  index. 


A,  use  of  article,  44. 

Abbreviated  words,  rule  against, 
187. 

Abbreviations,  punctuation  of,  137 
(§102);  use  of,  in  letters,  156,  158, 
159,  160,  162,  163,  165,  171. 

Accept,  for  except,  190,  Glossary. 

Active  voice  and  passive  voice,  ex- 
plained, 56;  forms  of,  92-100. 

Adjectives,  defined,  2,  32;  capitali- 
zation of  proper,  136  (95);  con- 
fused with  adverbs,  32-33;  dis- 
tinguished from  adverbs,  32-33; 
errors  in  comparison  of,  36-37; 
improper  forms  of,  36;  list  of  ir- 
regular, 33;  placing  of,  41;  ad- 
jective pronouns,  28;  punctua- 
tion of  two  or  more  adjectives 
modifying  same  noun,  138  (§106); 
singular  and  plural,  39-40. 

Admire,  for  like,  Glossary. 

Adverbs,  defined,  2,  32;  comparison 
of,  32;  conjunctive,  103-104; 
confusion  with  adjectives,  33; 
distinguished  from  adjectives, 
32-33;  double  negative,  42; 
errors  in  comparison,  36-37; 


list  of  irregularly  compared,  33; 
omission  of,  45;  punctuation  of, 
140  (§116),  141  (§121). 

jEsop's  Fables,  quotation  from,  152- 
153. 

Affect,  for  effect,  190,  Glossary. 

Aggravate,  for  irritate,  190,  Glossary. 

Agreement,  of  adjective  and  noun, 
39-40;  of  pronoun  anc<  antece- 
dent, 13,  101-102;  of  verb  and 
subject,  64-65,  67,  69;  of  verb  in 
clauses,  86. 

Ain't,  69  (5),  Glossary. 

Allow,  for  assert  or  intend,  Glossary. 

Allude,  for  refer,  191,  Glossary. 

Also,  without  and,  104. 

Among,  for  between,  Glossary. 

An,  use  of  article,  44. 

And,  use  of,  105. 

Antecedents,  of  pronouns,  defined, 
13;  agreement  of  pronouns  and, 
13;  clearness  of,  126  (2);  com- 
pound, 15;  indefinite,  29  (4);  of 
relative  pronouns,  69  (4). 

Any,  for  at  all,  Glossary. 

Apostrophe,  general  use  of,  143; 
with  plural  nouns,  8  (6);  with 


235 


236 


INDEX 


possessive  nouns,  10;  with  pos- 
sessive pronouns,  29  (10). 

Apposition,  explained,  22. 

Appositives,  punctuation  of,  138 
(§108). 

Argue,  for  augur,  191. 

Arise,  56. 

Articles,  explained,  2,  43;  use  of,  44. 

As,  as  conjunction  or  adverb,  105; 
as  a  relative  pronoun,  18,  Glos- 
sary; for  like,  194;  for  since, 
Glossary;  punctuation  of,  141 
(§122). 

At,  for  in,  Glossary. 

Attackted,  mispronunciation  of  at- 
tacked, Glossary. 

Attribute  complement,  explained, 
3;  case  of,  21,  22  (4)  (note  2). 

Auxiliary  verbs,  explained,  46; 
shall  and  will,  71-73;  should  and 
would,  76-77;  may,  can,  might, 
and  could,  79. 

Avocation,  for  vocation,  191. 

Awake,  for  wake,  56,  Glossary. 

Awful,  for  awfully,  Glossary. 

Bad,  for  badly,  33,  Glossary. 
Balanced  sentence,  117. 
Barbarisms,  defined,  185;  rules  for 

avoidance    of,     185-188;    when 

proper,  187. 

Beginning  of  the  composition,  177. 
Beside,  for  besides,  191,  Glossary. 
Best,  for  better,  Glossary. 
Between,  for  among,  Glossary. 
Bible,  capitalization  of,  137  (§100). 
Slowed,  for  blew,  Glossary. 
Body,  of  the  letter,  161-162. 
Books  for  reading,  list  of,  183-184. 
Bound,  for  determined,  Glossary. 
Brackets,  use  of,  142. 
But,  as  a  relative  pronoun,  18;  with 


a  negative,  42;  with  a  dependent 
clause,  105;  to  introduce  two  suc- 
ceeding statements,  105. 
But  that,  for  but  what,  29  (6). 

Calculate,  for  intend,  191. 

Can,  use  of,  69;  model  conjugation 
of,  90-91,  97-98. 

"Cant  expressions,"  in  letters,  162. 

Capitalization,  rules  for,  136-137. 

Cases,  classified  and  defined,  9; 
case  forms  of  pronouns,  20;  case 
of  word  in  apposition,  22;  case 
forms  of  relative  pronouns,  20, 
101-102;  outline  for  use  of  case 
forms,  21-22;  rules  for  forming 
possessive,  10. 

Character,  for  reputation,  192,  Glos- 
sary. 

Character  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  by 
Channing,  quotation  from,  150- 
151. 

Choice  of  words,  rules  to  aid  in, 
200-201.  . 

Christmas,  by  Washington  Irving, 
quotation  from,  151. 

Claim,  for  assert,  192. 

Clauses,  defined,  4;  adjective,  4; 
adverbial,  4;  agreement,  of  verb 
in,  87;  principal  or  independent, 
4,  101;  subordinate  or  dependent, 
4,  101;  substantive,  4;  when  and 
where  clauses,  103-104. 

Climax  in  sentences,  131  (3). 

Clipped  words,  rule  against,  187. 

Close  of  letter,  163-164. 

Clum,  for  climbed,  Glossary. 

"In  care  of,"  misuse  of  c\o  for,  161. 

Coherence,  of  paragraph,  151-153; 
how  to  gain  in  paragraph,  152; 
illustrations  of  in  paragraph,  152, 
153;  of  sentence,  126-128;  of 


INDEX 


237 


whole  composition,  178;  words 
of  152,  180. 

Colon,  141. 

"Comma  blunder,"  121. 

Comma,  137-140. 

Common  gender,  defined,  14,  of 
nouns  and  pronouns,  13-14. 

Comparative  degree,  32;  misuse 
of,  in  reference  to  more  than  two 
things,  37. 

Comparison,  degrees  of,  32;  irreg- 
ular forms  in,  33;  errors  in,  36- 
37;  manner  of  comparing,  32. 

Complected,  for  complexioned,  36, 
Glossary. 

Complex  sentence,  5. 

Complimentary  close,  in  letters, 
163. 

Compound  nouns,  explained,  8; 
rules  for  forming  plurals  of,  8. 

Compound  pronouns,  personal,  26; 
relative,  27-28. 

Compound  sentence,  5. 

Compound  subject,  5;  agreement  of 
verb  with,  67. 

Compound  words,  use  of  hyphen 
with,  144  (§140). 

Concluded,  for  to  form  an  opinion, 
Glossary. 

Conditional  clauses,  punctuation 
of,  139  (§114). 

Confusion  of  adjectives  and  ad- 
verbs, 33. 

Conjunctions,  defined,  2;  mis- 
uses of,  105-106;  correlatives, 
105-106,  127  (4). 

Considerable,  for  considerably,  Glos- 
sary. 

Consul,  for  council,  or  counsel,  192. 

Contractions  of  not,  use  of,  in  form- 
al composition,  69  (5). 

Co-ordinate    clauses,    punctuation 


of,  139  (§§112,  113),  140  (§§118, 
119,  120). 

Copulative  verb,  3. 

Correctly  written  letters,  166-171. 

Correlatives,  placing  of,  105,  106, 
127  (4). 

Could,  use  of,  69;  model  conjuga- 
tions of,  90-91,  97-98. 

Council,  counsel  and  consul  con- 
fused, 192. 

Cranford,  by  Mrs.  Gaskell,  selec- 
tion from,  182-183. 

Cute,  for  pretty,  clever,  etc.,  Glos- 
sary. 

Dash,  use  of,  141-142. 

Decease,  Glossary. 

Definition,    by    a    when    or    where 

clause,  103-104. 
Degrees  in  comparison,   classified, 

32. 

Demand,  Glossary. 
Dependent  and  conditional  clauses, 

punctuation  of,  139  (§114),  140 

(§§119,  120). 

Dictionary,  value  of  its  use,  203. 
Different,  with  than,  Glossary. 
Directly,  misused  as  a  conjunction, 

106. 

Disease,  Glossary. 
Division  of  words  at  ends  of  lines, 

144  (§139). 

Don't,  69  (5),  162,  Glossary. 
Double  negatives,  42. 
Down,  misuse  as  a  verb,  Glossary. 
Drownded,      mispronunciation     of 

drowned,  Glossary. 

East,  capitalization  of,  i37  (§100). 
Each  other,  misuse  with  more  than 

two  objects,  46,  Glossary. 
Effect,  for  affect,  190,  Glossary. 


238 


INDEX 


Either,  misuse  with  more  than  two 
objects,  40,  Glossary. 

Either-or,  105-106. 

Elements  of  the  sentence,  2,  3: 
Principal  elements,  subject,  2; 
predicate,  2.  Subordinate  ele- 
ments: attribute  complement,  3; 
adjective  modifier,  4;  adverbial 
modifier,  4;  object  complement, 
4. 

Emigration,  for  immigration,  192, 
Glossary. 

Emphasis,  in  paragraphs,  153;  in 
sentence,  131. 

Ending  of  whole  composition,  180. 

Enough,  Glossary. 

Euthuse,  Glossary. 

Enumerations,  punctuation  before, 
141,  (§§122,  123). 

Esq.,  misuse  after  Mr.,  158. 

Etc.,  misspelling  of,  Glossary. 

Euphony,  in  sentences,  132,  133. 

Everybody,  followed  by  a  plural 
form,  Glossary. 

Everywheres,  for  everywhere,  36. 

Examples,  of  beginning  of  whole 
composition,  177;  of  correctly 
written  letters,  166-171;  of  end- 
ing of  whole  composition,  180; 
of  outline  of  whole  composition, 
175. 

Exclamation  point,  use  of,  137. 

Except,  for  accept,  106,  190,  Glos- 
sary. 

Explanatory  relative  clauses,  punc- 
tuation of,  139  (§111). 

Expletives,  2. 

Expect,  for  suppose,  196. 

Fall,  iorfell,  56. 

Father,  capitalization  of,  136  (§99). 

Fell,  for  fall,  56. 


Feminine  gender,  defined,  12;  of 
nouns  and  pronouns,  14. 

Final  words,  in  letters,  163. 

"  Fine-writing,  "200. 

Fine,  Glossary. 

Firstly,  36,  Glossary. 

First-rate,  Glossary. 

For,  used  to  introduce  two  suc- 
ceeding clauses,  105. 

Foreign  words,  186. 

Former,  Glossary. 

Form  of  letters,  161,  164,  166-171. 

From,  Glossary. 

Funny,  for  singular,  Glossary. 

Gender,  defined  and  classified, 
12,  14;  formation  of  feminine 
from  masculine,  12;  gender  of 
pronouns,  13-14. 

General  terms,  use  of,  201. 

Gent,  Glossary. 

Gentleman,  Glossary. 

Geographical  names,  punctuation 
of,  138  (§108). 

Gerunds,  explanation  of,  80;  con- 
fusion with  participle,  80;  with 
noun  or  pronoun  modifier,  81; 
placing  of  gerund  phrase,  81-82. 

Gettysburg  speech,  by  Lincoln, 
181-182. 

Good,  for  well,  193. 

Good  use  of  words,  185;  offenses 
against,  185-190. 

Got,  Glossary. 

Grand,  Glossary. 

Grave  forms  of  personal  pronouns, 
use  of,  29(2). 

Guess,  for  think,  Glossary. 

Hackneyed     expressions,      general 
rule  against,  201;  in  letters,  162. 
Had,  ought,  50,  Glossary. 


INDEX 


239 


Hain't,  69  (5),  Glossary. 

Hanged,  confused  with  hung,  Glos- 
sary. 

Hardly,  placing  of,  41;  with  a  nega- 
tive, 42,  Glossary. 

Have,  misuse  after  had,  Glossary. 

Heading,  of  letters,  155-157. 

Heighth,  for  height,  Glossary. 

Here,  misuse  with  demonstratives, 
Glossary. 

Her'n,  26. 

Him,  misuse  with  gerund,  81. 

Hisself,  26. 

His'n,  26. 

Home,  confused  with  house,  193; 
for  at  home,  Glossary. 

Humbug,  Glossary. 

Hung,  confused  with  hanged,  Glos- 
sary. 

Hyphen,  use  of,  144. 

7,  capitalization  of,  29  (1),  137 
(§100).  Order  of,  29(1).  In  the 
letter,  162. 

Idioms,  198-199. 

i.  e.,  punctuation  of,  141  (§122). 

Illy,  36,  Glossary. 

Immigration,  confused  with  emi- 
gration, 192,  Glossary. 

Imperative  mode,  91,  98. 

Improving  one's  vocabularly,  rules 
for,  203-204. 

Improprieties,  190. 

Indentation,  of  paragraph,  149;  of 
paragraph,  in  letters,  157,  161, 
164. 

Infinitives,  explanation  of,  83-84; 
forms  of  83,  91,  99;  cases  used 
with,  21-22;  rules  for  sequence 
of  infinitive  tenses,  84;  split,  85. 

Inflection,  defined,  7. 

In,  confused  with  into,  Glossary. 


Inside  address  of  letters,  157-159. 
Interjection,  2. 

Interrogation  point,  use  of,  137. 
Interrogative  pronouns,  19,  102. 
Intransitive  verbs,  see  Transitive. 
Introductory    words    or    phrases, 
punctuation  of,  138  (§107). 

Kind,  with  plural  modifiers,  Glos- 
sary. 
Kind  of  a,  44. 

Lady,  Glossary. 

Latter,  confused  with  last,  Glossary. 

Lay,  confused  with  lie,  56-57. 

Learn,  for  teach,  196,  Glossary. 

Leave,  for  let,  193,  Glossary. 

Lend,  confused  with  loan,  194. 

Length,  of  paragraphs,  148;  of  sen- 
tences, 117-118,  122  (2-b). 

Letter  writing,  155-171;  body  of 
letter,  161-163;  close,  163-164; 
heading,  155-157;  illustrations 
of  correctly  written  letters,  166- 
171;  inside  address,  157-159; 
miscellaneous  directions,  164; 
notes  in  third  person,  171;  out- 
side address,  164-166;  saluta- 
tion, 159-161. 

Liable,  for  likely,  194. 

Lie,  confused  with  lay,  56-57. 

Lightning,  Glossary. 

Like,  misuse  as  a  conjunction,  106, 
194. 

Lit  on,  Glossary. 

Loan,  confused  with  lend,  194. 

Loose  sentences,  117. 

Lot  for  a  great  deal,  Glossary. 

Mad,  for  angry,  194. 
Masculine  gender,  defined,  12;  of 
pronouns,  14. 


240 


INDEX 


May,  69;  model  conjugation  of, 
90-91,  97-98. 

Messrs.,  use  of,  158. 

Might,  69;  model  conjugations  of, 
90-91,  97-98. 

Mode,  definition  of,  61;  indicative 
62-63,  88-100;  infinitive,  80,  83, 
91,  99;  imperative,  91,  98;  ob- 
ligative,  90,  footnote;  participal, 
80-82,  91,  99-100;  potential,  of, 
90-91,  97-98;  subjunctive,  61- 
62,  88-100. 

Modifiers,  placing  of,  126  (3-a). 

Most  for  almost,  193. 

Mother,  capitalization  of,  136  (§99). 

Mrs.,  Glossary. 

Much,  for  many,  195. 

Muchly,  36. 

Mutual,  confused  with  common, 
Glossary. 

Name,  form  of  verb,  46-47. 
Namely,  punctuation  of ,  141  (§122). 
Near,  confused  with  nearly,  195. 
Neither,  misuse  with  more  than  two 

objects,  40,  Glossary. 
Neither-nor,  105-106. 
Nerve,  Glossary. 
Neuter    gender,     defined,    12;    of 

nouns  and  pronouns,  14. 
Newly     coined     expressions,     rule 

against,  186. 
Newsy,  Glossary. 
Nominative  case,  defined  9;  when 

used,  21-22,  note  3,  101-102. 
No  place,  42,  Glossary. 
No,  punctuation  of,  137  (§102). 
No  good,  for  worthless,  230. 
North,  capitalization  of,  137  (§100). 
Not  muchly,  36. 
Notes  in  the  third  person,  171. 
Not  only— but  also,  105-106. 


Notorious,  confused  with  noted, 
Glossary. 

Nouns,  common,  1,  7;  proper,  7; 
case  of,  9;  gender  of,  12;  number 
of,  7. 

Nowhere  near,  for  not  nearly,  36, 
Glossary. 

Number,  defined,  7;  agreement  of 
verb  and  subject  in  number,  64- 
69;  singular,  7;  plural,  7;  of  rela- 
tive pronouns,  69,  102;  of  pro- 
nouns, 15;  of  pronouns  with  com- 
pounded antecedent,  15;  rules 
for  forming  plurals  of  nouns,  7. 

Number,  sign  #,  used  for,  156,  165. 

0  and  oh,  capitalization  of,  137 
(§100). 

Object  complement,  explained,  4. 

Objective  case,  defined,  9;  when 
used,  21. 

Obligative  mode,  90  (footnote). 

Observance,  confused  with  observa- 
tion, 195. 

Obsolete  words,  185-186. 

Of,  Glossary. 

Omission,  of  adverb  much,  45;  of 
important  words,  127  (5);  of 
prepositions,  108;  punctuation 
in  case  of  140  (§117);  143  (§138); 
of  verbs,  87. 

One  another,  use  of,  40. 

Only,  placing  of,  41;  with  a  nega- 
tive, 42,  Glossary. 

Order  of  heading  in  letters,  155— 
156. 

Other,  use  of  in  comparison,  37. 

Ought,  50. 

Outline,  for  composition,  174-177; 
illustration  of,  175. 

Outside  address,  of  letters,  164-166. 

Outside  of,  42,  Glossary. 


INDEX 


241 


Over-statement      of     facts,     rule 

against,  201. 
Over  with,  Glossary. 

Pants,  Glossary. 

Paragraphing  of  letters,  161. 

Paragraphs,  148-153;  coherence  in, 
151-153;  emphasis  in,  153;  inden- 
tation of,  149;  in  letters,  161; 
length  of,  148;  unity  in,  149-151. 

Parenthesis  marks,  use  of,  142; 
too  frequent  use  of,  121  (1-b). 

Parts  of  speech,  classified,  1. 

Passive  voice  and  active  voice  ex- 
plained, 56;  forms  of,  92-100. 

Past  participle,  explanation  and  use 
of,  46-48. 

Past  tense,  explanation  and  use  of, 
46-48. 

Participles,  explanation  of,  80;  con- 
fusion with  gerunds,  80;  dangling, 
80-81;  at  beginning  of  sentence, 
81 ;  preceded  by  thus,  81. 

Period,  use  of,  137. 

Periodic  sentence,  117. 

Personal  pronouns,  defined,  13; 
classified,  13;  compound  per- 
sonal pronouns,  26;  use  of  com- 
mon and  of  grave  forms  of,  29 
(2);  unnecessary  use  of,  29  (3). 

Piece,  Glossary. 

Photo,  Glossary. 

Phrases,  defined,  4;  prepositional, 
4;  verb,  4;  punctuation  of  ad- 
verbial phrases,  140  (§116),  141 
(§121). 

Place,  Glossary. 

Placing  of  adjectives  and  adverbs, 
41. 

Plenty,  Glossary. 

Plural  number,  explained.  7;  rules 
for  forming  plurals  of  nouns,  7. 


Point  of  view,  in  paragraph,  150; 
in  sentence,  123;  in  whole  com- 
position, 178. 

Poorly,  for  ill,  Glossary. 

Positive  degree,  32. 

Position,  in  letters,  of  complimen- 
tary close,  163;  of  heading,  155; 
of  inside  address,  157;  of  saluta- 
tion, 159;  of  outside  address,  164. 

Possessive  case,  defined,  10;  rules 
for  forming  possessives  of  nouns; 
when  used,  22. 

Potential  mode,  explanation  and 
forms  of,  90-91,  97-98. 

Predicate  of  the  sentence;  defined, 
2;  compound,  predicate,  ex- 
plained, 3. 

Prepositional  phrase,  4. 

Prepositions,  defined,  2;  omission 
of,  108;  proper  use  of,  107;  un- 
necessary use  of,  108;  used  as 
conjunctions,  106. 

Principal,  confused  with  principlet 
Glossary. 

Principal  parts  of  verbs,  explained, 
46;  classified,  46-48;  list  of,  48- 
50;  rules  for  use  of,  48. 

Principal  verbs,  explained,  46. 

Professional  words,  187. 

Pronouns,  defined  2,  13;  adjective, 
28;  antecedent  of,  defined,  13; 
agreement  with  antecedent,  13; 
case  forms  of,  20-21;  compound 
personal,  26;  compound  relative, 
27;  gender  of,  13-14;  interroga- 
tive, 17,  102;  number  of,  15;  out- 
line of,  use  of  case  forms  of,  21; 
relative,  17,  101;  rules  determin- 
ing gender  of,  14;  with  com- 
pound antecedents,  15. 

Pronunciation,  lists  of  frequently 
mispronounced  words,  209-220; 


242 


INDEX 


words  given  wrong  sounds,  209- 
217;  words  given  wrong  accent, 
217-220;  words  of  foreign  pro- 
nunciation, 217;  words  of  similar 
spelling,  220. 

Proper  adjectives,  capitalization  of, 
136  (§95). 

Proper  nouns,  denned,  7;  capitali- 
zation of,  136  (§95). 

Propose,  for  intend,  Glossary. 

Providing,  for  if,  Glossary. 

Provincialisms,  definition  and  rule 
against  use  of,  186. 

Punctuation,  rules  for,  137-144; 
in  letters,  body,  162,  heading, 
156;  inside  address,  157;  outside 
address,  157;  salutation,  160. 

Qualities,  essential:  Of  sentences, 
unity,  126-128;  emphasis,  131; 
euphony,  132-133.  Of  paragraphs, 
unity,  149-151;  coherence,  151- 
153;  emphasis,  153.  Of  whole 
composition,  unity,  178;  coher- 
ence, 178. 

Quite,  for  very,  196. 

Quotation  marks,  use  of,  143. 

Quotations,  punctuation  of,  139 
(115),  141  (§123),  142  (§131), 
143  (§§132-137). 

Raise,  confused  with  rise,  56,  Glos- 
sary. 

Recommend,  confused  with  recom- 
mendation, Glossary. 

Relative  causes,  cases  in,  101-102; 
explanatory  or  non-restrictive, 
18;  introduction  of  successive, 
103-104;  punctuation  of,  135 
(§111);  use  of  when  or  where 
clause,  103-104. 

Relative  pronouns,  defined  and  ex- 


plained, 17-18;  agreement  of  verb 
with,  69  (4) ;  case  and  number  of, 
69  (4),  21-22,  101-102;  com- 
pound, 27-28;  explanatory  or 
non-restrictive,  18;  restrictive, 
18;  use  of,  with  different  ante- 
cedents, 17-18. 

Repetition  of  similar  words  or  syl- 
lables, 132  (1),  133  (3). 

Reputation,  confused  with  character, 
192,  Glossary. 

Respectfully,  confused  with  respec- 
tively, 195. 

Rev.,  166. 

Right  away,  Glossary. 

Right  off,  Glossary. 

Rise,  confused  with  raise,  56,  Glos- 
sary. 

Salutation,  in  letters,  159-161. 

Some,  misuse  as  a  pronoun,  Glos- 
sary. 

Say,  for  order  or  command,  Glossary. 

Scarcely,  placing  of,  41;  with  a 
negative,  42,  Glossary. 

Scriptures,  capitalization  3f,  137 
(§100). 

Seldom  ever,  Glossary. 

Semi-colon,  use  of,  140-141. 

Sentence  elements  out  of  natural 
order,  138  (§109). 

Sentences:  defined,  1;  declarative, 
interrogative,  imperative,  exclam- 
atory, 1;  essential  qualities 
of,  121-136;  loose,  periodic, 
balanced,  117;  simple,  complex, 
compound,  5;  length  of,  117; 
slipshod  construction  of,  122  (2). 

Sequence  of  tenses,  infinitive,  84; 
in  clauses,  86. 

Series  of  words,  punctuation  of,  137 
(105). 


INDEX 


243 


Set,  confused  with  sit,  56-57,  Glos- 
sary. 

S-form  of  verb,  47. 

Shut  of,  for  rid  of,  Glossary. 

Sight,  for  many,  Glossary. 

Signature  of  writer,  in  letters,  163- 
164. 

Simple  sentence,  denned,  5. 

Simple  words,  use  of,  200. 

Similar  expressions  of  similar 
thoughts,  128  (7). 

Singular  form  of  verb,  explanation 
and  use  of,  47,  after  you  and  they, 
69  (2). 

Singular  number,  explained,  7. 

Sit,  confused  with  set,  56-57,  Glos- 
sary. 

Shall  and  will,  use  of,  in  dependent 
clauses,  73;  in  principal  clauses, 
71-72;  in  questions,  72;  model 
conjugations  of,  88-100;  past 
tenses  of,  76-77. 

Should  and  would,  model  conjuga- 
tions of,  88-100;  use  of,  76-77. 

Slang,  187. 

So,   use  of,   104-105. 

Solecisms,  185. 

Some,  misuse  as  an  adverb,  Glossary. 

Somebody  else's,  10. 

Sort,  with  plurals,  Glossary. 

Sort  of  a,  44,  Glossary. 

South,  capitalization  of,  137  (§100). 

Speech,  paragraphing  of,  149. 

Specific  terms,  use  of,  201. 

Spelling,  lists  of  words  frequently 
misspelled,  205-208;  rules  for, 
206-208;  of  words  of  similar 
sound,  208. 

"Squinting  construction,"  127  (3-b) 

Street,  omission  of  in  letters,  157. 

Subject  of  sentence  or  clause,  de- 
fined 2;  agreement  of  verb  and 


subject,  64-65,  67,  69;  compound, 
3;  relative  pronoun  as,  69  (4), 
101-102,  of  whole  composition, 
174,  178;  statement  of,  in  com- 
position, 174. 

Subject  matter  of  letters,  161. 

Subjunctive  mode,  61,  62,  88-100. 

Such,  Glossary. 

Summarizing  word,  use  of,  128  (6); 
punctuation  of,  142  (§127). 

Superlative  degree,  32;  misuse  in 
comparing  only  two  things,  37. 

Suspect,  for  expect,  196. 

Syllables,  division  of  words  into, 
144,  (§139). 

Synonyoms,  value  of,  204. 

Tasty,  for  tasteful,  Glossary. 

Technical  words,  187. 

"Telegraph  style,"  in  letters,  161. 

Tense,  explained,  46;  sequence  of, 
84,  86. 

Than,  use  of,  105. 

That,  with  what  antecedents  used, 
18;  as  a  restrictive  relative,  18; 
misuse  of,  Glossary. 

That  is,  punctuation  of,  141  (§122). 

The,  use  of  article,  44. 

Their'n,  theirself,  theirselves,  26. 

Them,  for  those,  29  (7). 

Then,  use  of,  104. 

There,  improper  use  of  after  de- 
monstratives, Glossary. 

They,  indefinite  use  of,  29  (8);  witb 
singular  verb,  69  (2). 

Third  person,  notes  in  the,  171. 

Those  kind,  and  these  sort,  40. 

Three  first,  Glossary. 

Thusly,  36. 

Title  of  whole  composition,  174, 178. 

Titles,  abbreviations  of,  158,  160; 
capitalization  of,  136  (§§96,  97). 


244 


INDEX 


To-day,  to-morrow,  to-night,  hyphens 

with,  144  (§140). 
Too,  misuse  of,  45,  Glossary. 
Transition,  in  whole  composition, 

178-180. 
Transitive  and  intransitive  verbs, 

confusion  of,  56;  explanation  of, 

4,  55-56. 

Transpire,  for  happen,  196. 
Try  and,  Glossary. 
Two  first,  Glossary. 

Unbeknown,  for  unknown,  36. 
Unity:  Of  paragraph,  149-151;  how 

to  gain,  150;  illustrations  of,  151. 

Of  sentence,  121-123.     Of  whole 

composition,  178. 
Unnecessary  words,  use  of,  108-131. 

Verb  phrase,  explained,  4. 

Verbs,  defined,  2,  46;  agreement  of 
verb  and  subject,  64-65,  69; 
agreement  of  verb  in  clauses,  86; 
auxiliary,  46;  gerunds,  80-82; 
infinitives,  83-84;  mode,  61-63; 
model  conjugations  of  to-be  and 
to  see,  88-100;  omission  of  verbs 
or  parts  of,  87;  participles,  80-82; 
principal,  46;  principal  parts, 
46-47;  principal  parts,  list  of, 
48-50;  transitive  and  intransitive, 
65-56;  use  of  auxiliaries,  71-73, 
76-77,  79;  voice,  56. 

Very,  45,  196. 

viz.,  punctuation  of,  141  (§122). 

Vocabulary,  rules  for  improvement 
of,  203-204. 

Vocation,  confused  with  avocation, 
191. 

Vulgarisms,  187. 

Wake,  confused  with  awake,  56, 
Glossary. 


Wait  on,  confused  with  wait  for, 
Glossary.  ^ 

Ways,  Glossary. 

Weak  beginnings  and  endings  of 
sentences,  131  (1). 

Well,  confused  with  good,  33,  193. 

West,  capitalization  of,  137  (§100). 

What,  with  what  antecedents,  18. 

When,  103-104. 

Where,  104. 

Which,  with  clause  or  phrase  as 
antecedent,  29  (9);  with  what 
antecedents  used,  18. 

Who,  with  what  antecedents  used,  18. 

Whole  composition,  174-180;  be- 
ginning of,  177,  ending  of,  180; 
paragraph  composition  or  para- 
graph theme,  148. 

Will,  use  of,  see  shall. 

Without,  misuse  as  a  conjunction,  106.       ( 

Words,  choice  of,  200-201;  clipped 
or  abbreviated,  187;  division  of  at 
ends  of  lines,  144,  (§139) ;  foreign,  ' 
186,  217;  good  use  of,  185-190; 
how  to  improve  vocabulary  of, 
203-204,  idioms,  198-199;  in 
place  of  figures  in  letters,  157; 
newly-coined,  186;  of  coherence, 
152-180;  professional,  187;  pro- 
nunciation of,  208-220,  pro- 
vincialisms, 186;  simple  English, 
200;  slang,  187;  spelling  of,  205- 
208;  technical  words,  187;  vul- 
garisms, 187. 

Would,  see  should. 


Yes,  punctuation  of,  137  (102). 
You,  indefinite  use  of,  29  (8);  with 

singular  verb,  69  (2). 
Yours  truly  and  yours  respectfully, 

wrong  abbreviation  of,  163. 
Your'n,  26. 

(18) 


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